Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Home
Hostname: page-component-ffbbcc459-7mr6j Total loading time: 0.596 Render date: 2022-03-12T10:22:28.283Z Has data issue: true Feature Flags: { "shouldUseShareProductTool": true, "shouldUseHypothesis": true, "isUnsiloEnabled": true, "useRatesEcommerce": false, "useNewApi": true }
  • English
Psychological Medicine Psychological Medicine

Article contents

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness–persistence–impairment model of psychotic disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 July 2008

J. van Os ,
R. J. Linscott ,
I. Myin-Germeys ,
P. Delespaul  and
L. Krabbendam
J. van Os*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, South Limburg Mental Health Research and Teaching Network, EURON, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Division of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK
R. J. Linscott
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, South Limburg Mental Health Research and Teaching Network, EURON, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
I. Myin-Germeys
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, South Limburg Mental Health Research and Teaching Network, EURON, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
P. Delespaul
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, South Limburg Mental Health Research and Teaching Network, EURON, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
L. Krabbendam
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, South Limburg Mental Health Research and Teaching Network, EURON, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
*
*Address for correspondence: Dr J. van Os, Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, South Limburg Mental Health Research and Teaching Network, EURON, Maastricht University, PO Box 616 (DRT 10), 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands. (Email: j.vanos@sp.unimaas.nl)
Get access Rights & Permissions[Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A systematic review of all reported incidence and prevalence studies of population rates of subclinical psychotic experiences reveals a median prevalence rate of around 5% and a median incidence rate of around 3%. A meta-analysis of risk factors reveals associations with developmental stage, child and adult social adversity, psychoactive drug use, and also male sex and migrant status. The small difference between prevalence and incidence rates, together with data from follow-up studies, indicates that approximately 75–90% of developmental psychotic experiences are transitory and disappear over time. There is evidence, however, that transitory developmental expression of psychosis (psychosis proneness) may become abnormally persistent (persistence) and subsequently clinically relevant (impairment), depending on the degree of environmental risk the person is additionally exposed to. The psychosis proneness–persistence–impairment model considers genetic background factors impacting on a broadly distributed and transitory population expression of psychosis during development, poor prognosis of which, in terms of persistence and clinical need, is predicted by environmental exposure interacting with genetic risk.

Keywords

Epidemiologypsychosisschizophreniaschizotypytreatment
Type
Invited Review
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 39 , Issue 2 , February 2009 , pp. 179 - 195
Copyright
Copyright © 2008 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agerbo, E, Byrne, M, Eaton, WW, Mortensen, PB (2004). Marital and labor market status in the long run in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 61, 28–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aleman, A, Nieuwenstein, MR, Böcker, KBE, De Haan, EHF (2001). Multi-dimensionality of hallucinatory predisposition: factor structure of the Launay–Slade Hallucination Scale in a normal sample. Personality and Individual Differences 30, 287–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, P, Freeman, D, Johns, L, McGuire, P (2006). Misattribution of self-generated speech in relation to hallucinatory proneness and delusional ideation in healthy volunteers. Schizophrenia Research 84, 281–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arseneault, L, Cannon, M, Poulton, R, Murray, R, Caspi, A, Moffit, TE (2002). Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. British Medical Journal 325, 1212–1213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bak, M, Delespaul, P, Hanssen, M, de Graaf, R, Vollebergh, W, van Os, J (2003). How false are ‘false’ positive psychotic symptoms? Schizophrenia Research 62, 187–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bak, M, Myin-Germeys, I, Delespaul, P, Vollebergh, W, de Graaf, R, van Os, J (2005). Do different psychotic experiences differentially predict need for care in the general population? Comprehensive Psychiatry 46, 192–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett, TR, Etheridge, JB (1992). Verbal hallucinations in normals. I: People who hear voices. Applied Cognitive Psychology 6, 379–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bentall, RP, Slade, PD (1985). Reliability of a scale measuring disposition towards hallucinations: a brief report. Personality and Individual Differences 6, 527–529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergida, H, Lenzenweger, MF (2006). Schizotypy and sustained attention: confirming evidence from an adult community sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 115, 545–551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brugha, T, Singleton, N, Meltzer, H, Bebbington, P, Farrell, M, Jenkins, R, Coid, J, Fryers, T, Melzer, D, Lewis, G (2005). Psychosis in the community and in prisons: a report from the British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 774–780.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cantor-Graae, E, Selten, JP (2005). Schizophrenia and migration: a meta-analysis and review. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 12–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapman, LJ, Chapman, JP, Kwapil, TR, Eckblad, M, Zinser, MC (1994). Putatively psychosis-prone subjects 10 years later. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103, 171–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Claridge, G (1997). Schizotypy: Implications for Illness and Health. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colbert, SM, Peters, ER (2002). Need for closure and jumping-to-conclusions in delusion-prone individuals. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 190, 27–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collip, D, Myin-Germeys, I, Van Os, J (2008). Does the concept of ‘sensitization’ provide a plausible mechanism for the putative link between the environment and schizophrenia? Schizophrenia Bulletin 34, 220–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cougnard, A, Marcelis, M, Myin-Germeys, I, De Graaf, R, Vollebergh, W, Krabbendam, L, Lieb, R, Wittchen, HU, Henquet, C, Spauwen, J, Van Os, J (2007). Does normal developmental expression of psychosis combine with environmental risk to cause persistence of psychosis? A psychosis proneness-persistence model. Psychological Medicine 37, 513–527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crow, TJ (1998). From Kraepelin to Kretschmer leavened by Schneider. The transition from categories of psychosis to dimensions of variation intrinsic to Homo sapiens. Archives of General Psychiatry 55, 502–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Degenhardt, L, Hall, W (2001). The association between psychosis and problematical drug use among Australian adults: findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Psychological Medicine 31, 659–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dhossche, D, Ferdinand, R, van der Ende, J, Hofstra, MB, Verhulst, F (2002). Diagnostic outcome of self-reported hallucinations in a community sample of adolescents. Psychological Medicine 32, 619–627.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dinn, WM, Harris, CL, Aycicegi, A, Greene, P, Andover, MS (2002). Positive and negative schizotypy in a student sample: neurocognitive and clinical correlates. Schizophrenia Research 56, 171–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Driessen, G, Gunther, N, Bak, M, van Sambeek, M, Van Os, J (1998). Characteristics of early- and late-diagnosed schizophrenia: implications for first-episode studies. Schizophrenia Research 33, 27–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eaton, WW, Romanoski, A, Anthony, JC, Nestadt, G (1991). Screening for psychosis in the general population with a self-report interview. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 179, 689–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egan, MF, Goldberg, TE, Gscheidle, T, Weirich, M, Rawlings, R, Hyde, TM, Bigelow, L, Weinberger, DR (2001). Relative risk for cognitive impairments in siblings of patients with schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 50, 98–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fanous, A, Gardner, C, Walsh, D, Kendler, KS (2001). Relationship between positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia and schizotypal symptoms in nonpsychotic relatives. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 669–673.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faraone, SV, Seidman, LJ, Kremen, WS, Pepple, JR, Lyons, MJ, Tsuang, MT (1995). Neuropsychological functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: a diagnostic efficiency analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104, 286–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferdinand, RF, van der Ende, J, Verhulst, FC (2004). Associations between visual and auditory hallucinations in children and adolescents, and tobacco use in adulthood. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 39, 514–520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ, Ridder, EM (2005). Tests of causal linkages between cannabis use and psychotic symptoms. Addiction 100, 354–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ, Swain-Campbell, NR (2003). Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people. Psychological Medicine 33, 15–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodwin, RD, Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ (2003). Neuroticism in adolescence and psychotic symptoms in adulthood. Psychological Medicine 33, 1089–1097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruzelier, JH (1996). The factorial structure of schizotypy. Part I. Affinities with syndromes of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 22, 611–620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanssen, M, Bak, M, Bijl, R, Vollebergh, W, van Os, J (2005). The incidence and outcome of subclinical psychotic experiences in the general population. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44, 181–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanssen, M, Krabbendam, L, Vollema, M, Delespaul, P, Van Os, J (2006). Evidence for instrument and family-specific variation of subclinical psychosis dimensions in the general population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 115, 5–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henderson, AS, Korten, AE, Levings, C, Jorm, AF, Christensen, H, Jacomb, PA, Rodgers, B (1998). Psychotic symptoms in the elderly: a prospective study in a population sample. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 13, 484–492.3.0.CO;2-7>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henquet, C, Murray, R, Linszen, D, van Os, J (2005). The environment and schizophrenia: the role of cannabis use. Schizophrenia Bulletin 31, 608–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janssen, I, Hanssen, M, Bak, M, Bijl, RV, de Graaf, R, Vollebergh, W, McKenzie, K, van Os, J (2003). Discrimination and delusional ideation. British Journal of Psychiatry 182, 71–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janssen, I, Krabbendam, L, Bak, M, Hanssen, M, Vollebergh, W, de Graaf, R, van Os, J (2004). Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 190, 38–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janssen, I, Versmissen, D, Campo, JA, Myin-Germeys, I, van Os, J, Krabbendam, L (2006). Attribution style and psychosis: evidence for an externalizing bias in patients but not in individuals at high risk. Psychological Medicine 36, 771–778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johns, LC, Cannon, M, Singleton, N, Murray, RM, Farrell, M, Brugha, T, Bebbington, P, Jenkins, R, Meltzer, H (2004). Prevalence and correlates of self-reported psychotic symptoms in the British population. British Journal of Psychiatry 185, 298–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johns, LC, Nazroo, JY, Bebbington, P, Kuipers, E (2002). Occurrence of hallucinatory experiences in a community sample and ethnic variations. British Journal of Psychiatry 180, 174–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johns, LC, van Os, J (2001). The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population. Clinical Psychology Review 21, 1125–1141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, JK, Tuulio-Henriksson, A, Pirkola, T, Huttunen, MO, Lonnqvist, J, Kaprio, J, Cannon, TD (2003). Do schizotypal symptoms mediate the relationship between genetic risk for schizophrenia and impaired neuropsychological performance in co-twins of schizophrenic patients? Biological Psychiatry 54, 1200–1204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P, Rodgers, B, Murray, R, Marmot, M (1994 a). Child development risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 344, 1398–1402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, PB, Harvey, I, Lewis, SW, Toone, BK, Van Os, J, Williams, M, Murray, RM (1994 b). Cerebral ventricle dimensions as risk factors for schizophrenia and affective psychosis: an epidemiological approach to analysis. Psychological Medicine 24, 995–1011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, KS, Gallagher, TJ, Abelson, JM, Kessler, RC (1996). Lifetime prevalence, demographic risk factors, and diagnostic validity of nonaffective psychosis as assessed in a US community sample. The National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 53, 1022–1031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, KS, Gardner, CO (1997). The risk for psychiatric disorders in relatives of schizophrenic and control probands: a comparison of three independent studies. Psychological Medicine 27, 411–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Hewitt, J (1992). The structure of self-report schizotypy in twins. Journal of Personality Disorders 6, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, KS, McGuire, M, Gruenberg, AM, O'Hare, A, Spellman, M, Walsh, D (1993). The Roscommon Family Study. III. Schizophrenia-related personality disorders in relatives. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 781–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, Birnbaum, H, Demler, O, Falloon, IR, Gagnon, E, Guyer, M, Howes, MJ, Kendler, KS, Shi, L, Walters, E, Wu, EQ (2005). The prevalence and correlates of nonaffective psychosis in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Biological Psychiatry 58, 668–676.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kety, SS, Rosenthal, D, Wender, PH, Schulsinger, F (1971). Mental illness in the biological and adoptive families of adopted schizophrenics. American Journal of Psychiatry 128, 82–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitamura, T, Okazaki, Y, Fujinawa, A, Yoshino, M, Kasahara, Y (1995). Symptoms of psychoses. A factor-analytic study. British Journal of Psychiatry 166, 236–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Konings, M, Bak, M, Hanssen, M, van Os, J, Krabbendam, L (2006). Validity and reliability of the CAPE: a self-report instrument for the measurement of psychotic experiences in the general population. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 114, 55–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krabbendam, L, Marcelis, M, Delespaul, P, Jolles, J, van Os, J (2001). Single or multiple familial cognitive risk factors in schizophrenia? American Journal of Medical Genetics 105, 183–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krabbendam, L, Myin-Germeys, I, De Graaf, R, Vollebergh, W, Nolen, WA, Iedema, J, Van Os, J (2004). Dimensions of depression, mania and psychosis in the general population. Psychological Medicine 34, 1177–1186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krabbendam, L, Myin-Germeys, I, Hanssen, M, van Os, J (2005). Familial covariation of the subclinical psychosis phenotype and verbal fluency in the general population. Schizophrenia Research 74, 37–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krabbendam, L, van Os, J (2005). Schizophrenia and urbanicity: a major environmental influence – conditional on genetic risk. Schizophrenia Bulletin 31, 795–799.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kwapil, TR (1998). Social anhedonia as a predictor of the development of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107, 558–565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langdon, R, Coltheart, M (1999). Mentalising, schizotypy, and schizophrenia. Cognition 71, 43–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langdon, R, Coltheart, M (2004). Recognition of metaphor and irony in young adults: the impact of schizotypal personality traits. Psychiatry Research 125, 9–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laroi, F, Collignon, O, Van der Linden, M (2005). Source monitoring for actions in hallucination proneness. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 10, 105–123.Google ScholarPubMed
Laroi, F, Marczewski, P, Van der Linden, M (2004). Further evidence of the multi-dimensionality of hallucinatory predisposition: factor structure of a modified version of the Launay–Slade Hallucinations Scale in a normal sample. European Psychiatry 19, 15–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laurens, KR, Hodgins, S, Maughan, B, Murray, RM, Rutter, ML, Taylor, EA (2007). Community screening for psychotic-like experiences and other putative antecedents of schizophrenia in children aged 9–12 years. Schizophrenia Research 90, 130–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, MF, Gold, JM (2000). Auditory working memory and verbal recall memory in schizotypy. Schizophrenia Research 42, 101–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, MF, Korfine, L (1994). Perceptual aberrations, schizotypy, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Schizophrenia Bulletin 20, 345–357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, E, Jonas, H, Serper, MR (2004). Interpersonal attributional biases in hallucinatory-prone individuals. Schizophrenia Research 69, 23–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewandowski, KE, Barrantes-Vidal, N, Nelson-Gray, RO, Clancy, C, Kepley, HO, Kwapil, TR (2006). Anxiety and depression symptoms in psychometrically identified schizotypy. Schizophrenia Research 83, 225–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieb, R, Isensee, B, von Sydow, K, Wittchen, HU (2000). The Early Developmental Stages of Psychopathology Study (EDSP): a methodological update. European Addiction Research 6, 170–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Líndal, E, Stefánsson, JG, Stefánsson, SB (1994). The qualitative difference of visions and visual hallucinations: a comparison of a general-population and clinical sample. Comprehensive Psychiatry 35, 405–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linney, YM, Murray, RM, Peters, ER, MacDonald, AM, Rijsdijk, F, Sham, PC (2003). A quantitative genetic analysis of schizotypal personality traits. Psychological Medicine 33, 803–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linney, YM, Peters, ER, Ayton, P (1998). Reasoning biases in delusion-prone individuals. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 37, 285–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
López-Ilundain, JM, Pérez-Nievas, F, Otero, M, Mata, I (2006). Peters' Delusions Inventory in Spanish general population: internal reliability, factor structure and association with demographic variables (dimensionality of delusional ideation). Actas Espanolas de Psiquiatria 34, 94–104.Google Scholar
MacDonald, AW, Pogue-Geile, MF, Debski, TT, Manuck, S (2001). Genetic and environmental influences on schizotypy: a community-based twin study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 27, 47–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maric, N, Krabbendam, L, Vollebergh, W, de Graaf, R, van Os, J (2003). Sex differences in symptoms of psychosis in a non-selected, general population sample. Schizophrenia Research 63, 89–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marjoram, D, Miller, P, McIntosh, AM, Owens, DGC, Johnstone, EC, Lawrie, S (2006). A neuropsychological investigation into ‘Theory of Mind’ and enhanced risk of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 144, 29–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mata, I, Gilvarry, CM, Jones, PB, Lewis, SW, Murray, RM, Sham, PC (2003). Schizotypal personality traits in nonpsychotic relatives are associated with positive symptoms in psychotic probands. Schizophrenia Bulletin 29, 273–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsui, M, Sumiyoshi, T, Kato, K, Yoneyama, E, Kurachi, M (2004). Neuropsychological profile in patients with schizotypal personality disorder or schizophrenia. Psychological Reports 94, 387–397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGee, R, Williams, S, Poulton, R (2000). Hallucinations in nonpsychotic children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39, 12–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGorry, PD, Bell, RC, Dudgeon, PL, Jackson, HJ (1998). The dimensional structure of first episode psychosis: an exploratory factor analysis. Psychological Medicine 28, 935–947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGorry, PD, McFarlane, C, Patton, GC, Bell, R, Hibbert, ME, Jackson, HJ, Bowes, G (1995). The prevalence of prodromal features of schizophrenia in adolescence: a preliminary survey. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 92, 241–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGrath, J, Saha, S, Welham, J, El Saadi, O, MacCauley, C, Chant, D (2004). A systematic review of the incidence of schizophrenia: the distribution of rates and the influence of sex, urbanicity, migrant status and methodology. BMC Medicine 2, 13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKay, R, Langdon, R, Coltheart, M (2005). Paranoia, persecutory delusions and attributional biases. Psychiatry Research 136, 233–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meehl, PE (1962). Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia. American Psychologist 17, 827–838.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mojtabi, R (2006). Psychotic-like experiences and interpersonal violence in the general population. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 41, 183–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neumann, CS, Walker, EF (2003). Neuromotor functioning in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder: associations with symptoms and neurocognition. Schizophrenia Bulletin 29, 285–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ohayon, MM, Schatzberg, AF (2002). Prevalence of depressive episodes with psychotic features in the general population. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 1855–1861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olfson, M, Lewis-Fernandez, R, Weissman, MM, Feder, A, Gameroff, MJ, Pilowsky, D, Fuentes, M (2002). Psychotic symptoms in an urban general medicine practice. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 1412–1419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olfson, M, Weissman, MM, Leon, AC, Farber, L, Sheehan, DV (1996). Psychotic symptoms in primary care. Journal of Family Practice 43, 481–488.Google ScholarPubMed
Owens, DG, Johnstone, EC (2006). Precursors and prodromata of schizophrenia: findings from the Edinburgh High Risk Study and their literature context. Psychological Medicine 36, 1501–1514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, S, Holzman, PS, Lenzenweger, MF (1995). Individual differences in spatial working memory in relation to schizotypy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104, 355–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, E, Day, S, McKenna, J, Orbach, G (1999 a). Delusional ideation in religious and psychotic populations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 38, 83–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, E, Joseph, S, Day, S, Garety, P (2004). Measuring delusional ideation: the 21-item Peters et al. Delusions Inventory (PDI). Schizophrenia Bulletin 30, 1005–1022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, ER, Joseph, SA, Garety, PA (1999 b). Measurement of delusional ideation in the normal population: introducing the PDI (Peters et al. Delusions Inventory). Schizophrenia Bulletin 25, 553–576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pickup, GJ (2006). Theory of mind and its relation to schizotypy. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 11, 177–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posey, TB, Losch, ME (1983). Auditory hallucinations of hearing voices in 375 normal subjects. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality 3, 99–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poulton, R, Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE, Cannon, M, Murray, R, Harrington, H (2000). Children's self-reported psychotic symptoms and adult schizophreniform disorder: a 15-year longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 1053–1058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A (2006). Schizotypal personality: neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories. Annual Revue of Clinical Psychology 2, 291–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Read, J, van Os, J, Morrison, AP, Ross, CA (2005). Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: a literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 112, 330–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, CA, Joshi, S (1992). Schneiderian symptoms and childhood trauma in the general population. Comprehensive Psychiatry 33, 269–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, CA, Joshi, S, Currie, R (1990). Dissociative experiences in the general population. American Journal of Psychiatry 147, 1547–1552.Google ScholarPubMed
Rössler, W, Riecher-Rössler, A, Angst, J, Murray, R, Gamma, A, Eich, D, van Os, J, Gross, VA (2007). Psychotic experiences in the general population: a twenty-year prospective community study. Schizophrenia Research, 92, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saha, S, Chant, D, McGrath, J (2008). Meta-analyses of the incidence and prevalence of schizophrenia: conceptual and methodological issues. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 17, 55–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwab, ME (1977). A study of reported hallucinations in a Southeastern county. Mental Health and Society 4, 344–354.Google Scholar
Scott, J, Chant, D, Andrews, G, McGrath, J (2006). Psychotic-like experiences in the general community: the correlates of CIDI psychosis screen items in an Australian sample. Psychological Medicine 36, 231–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serper, M, Dill, CA, Chang, N, Kot, T, Elliot, J (2005). Factorial structure of the hallucinatory experience: continuity of experience in psychotic and normal individuals. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 193, 265–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shevlin, M, Murphy, J, Dorahy, MJ, Adamson, G (2007). The distribution of positive psychosis-like symptoms in the population: a latent class analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey. Schizophrenia Research 89, 101–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siever, LJ, Davis, KL (2004). The pathophysiology of schizophrenia disorders: perspectives from the spectrum. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 398–413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siever, LJ, Kalus, OF, Keefe, RS (1993). The boundaries of schizophrenia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 16, 217–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons, CJ, Jacobs, N, Jolles, J, van Os, J, Krabbendam, L (2007). Subclinical psychotic experiences and cognitive functioning as a bivariate phenotype for genetic studies in the general population. Schizophrenia Research 92, 24–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sitskoorn, MM, Aleman, A, Ebisch, SJ, Appels, MC, Kahn, RS (2004). Cognitive deficits in relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research 71, 285–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spauwen, J, Krabbendam, L, Lieb, R, Wittchen, HU, van Os, J (2003). Sex differences in psychosis: normal or pathological? Schizophrenia Research 62, 45–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spauwen, J, Krabbendam, L, Lieb, R, Wittchen, HU, van Os, J (2004). Does urbanicity shift the population expression of psychosis? Journal of Psychiatric Research 38, 613–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spauwen, J, Krabbendam, L, Lieb, R, Wittchen, HU, van Os, J (2006 a). Evidence that the outcome of developmental expression of psychosis is worse for adolescents growing up in an urban environment. Psychological Medicine 36, 407–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spauwen, J, Krabbendam, L, Lieb, R, Wittchen, HU, van Os, J (2006 b). Impact of psychological trauma on the development of psychotic symptoms: relationship with psychosis proneness. British Journal of Psychiatry 188, 527–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
StataCorp (2007). STATA Statistical Software: Release 10.0. College Station: Texas.Google Scholar
Stefanis, NC, Delespaul, P, Smyrnis, N, Lembesi, A, Avramopoulos, DA, Evdokimidis, IK, Stefanis, CN, van Os, J (2004). Is the excess risk of psychosis-like experiences in urban areas attributable to altered cognitive development? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 39, 364–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stefanis, NC, Hanssen, M, Smirnis, NK, Avramopoulos, DA, Evdokimidis, IK, Stefanis, CN, Verdoux, H, van Os, J (2002). Evidence that three dimensions of psychosis have a distribution in the general population. Psychological Medicine 32, 347–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stueve, A, Link, BG (1998). Gender differences in the relationship between mental illness and violence: evidence from a community-based epidemiological study in Israel. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33, S61–S67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tien, AY (1991). Distributions of hallucinations in the population. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 26, 287–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tien, AY, Anthony, JC (1990). Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 178, 473–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tien, AY, Eaton, WW (1992). Psychopathologic precursors and sociodemographic risk factors for the schizophrenia syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 37–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Dael, F, Versmissen, D, Janssen, I, Myin-Germeys, I, van Os, J, Krabbendam, L (2006). Data gathering: biased in psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 341–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Os, J, Hanssen, M, Bak, M, Bijl, RV, Vollebergh, W (2003). Do urbanicity and family liability coparticipate in causing psychosis? American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 477–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Os, J, Hanssen, M, Bijl, R-V, Ravelli, A (2000). Straus (1969) revisited: a psychosis continuum in the general population? Schizophrenia Research 45, 11–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Os, J, Hanssen, M, Bijl, RV, Vollebergh, W (2001). Prevalence of psychotic disorder and community level of psychotic symptoms: an urban–rural comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 663–668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vega, WA, Sribney, WM, Miskimen, TM, Escobar, JI, Aguilar-Gaxiola, S (2006). Putative psychotic symptoms in the Mexican American population: prevalence and co-occurrence with psychiatric disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 194, 471–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verdoux, H, Maurice-Tison, S, Gay, B, van Os, J, Salamon, R, Bourgeois, ML (1998 a). A survey of delusional ideation in primary-care patients. Psychological Medicine 28, 127–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verdoux, H, van Os, J, Maurice-Tison, S, Gay, B, Salamon, R, Bourgeois, M (1998 b). Is early adulthood a critical developmental stage for psychosis proneness? A survey of delusional ideation in normal subjects. Schizophrenia Research 29, 247–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Versmissen, D, Janssen, I, Johns, L, McGuire, P, Drukker, M, Campo, J, Myin-Germeys, I, van Os, J, Krabbendam, L (2007 a). Verbal self-monitoring in psychosis: a non-replication. Psychological Medicine 37, 569–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Versmissen, D, Myin-Germeys, I, Janssen, I, Franck, N, Georgieff, N, a Campo, J, van Os, J, Krabbendam, L (2007 b). Impairment of self-monitoring: part of the endophenotypic risk for psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 51 (Suppl.), S58–S62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voglmaier, MM, Seidman, LJ, Niznikiewicz, MA, Dickey, CC, Shenton, ME, McCarley, RW (2000). Verbal and nonverbal neuropsychological test performance in subjects with schizotypal personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 787–793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vollema, MG, Hoijtink, H (2000). The multidimensionality of self-report schizotypy in a psychiatric population: an analysis using multidimensional Rasch models. Schizophrenia Bulletin 26, 565–575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vollema, MG, Sitskoorn, MM, Appels, MC, Kahn, RS (2002). Does the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire reflect the biological-genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia? Schizophrenia Research 54, 39–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vollema, MG, van den Bosch, RJ (1995). The multidimensionality of schizotypy. Schizophrenia Bulletin 21, 19–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiles, NJ, Zammit, S, Bebbington, P, Singleton, N, Meltzer, H, Lewis, G (2006). Self-reported psychotic symptoms in the general population: results from the longitudinal study of the British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. British Journal of Psychiatry 188, 519–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittchen, HU, Perkonigg, A, Lachner, G, Nelson, CB (1998). Early developmental stages of psychopathology study (EDSP): objectives and design. European Addiction Research 4, 18–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfradt, U, Straube, ER (1998). Factor structure of schizotypal traits among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences 24, 201–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshizumi, T, Murase, S, Honjo, S, Kaneko, H, Murakami, T (2004). Hallucinatory experiences in a community sample of Japanese children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43, 1030–1036.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yung, AR, Phillips, LJ, Yuen, HP, Francey, SM, McFarlane, CA, Hallgren, M, McGorry, PD (2003). Psychosis prediction: 12-month follow up of a high-risk (‘prodromal’) group. Schizophrenia Research 60, 21–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
1300
Cited by

Send article to Kindle

To send this article to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about sending to your Kindle. Find out more about sending to your Kindle.

Note you can select to send to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be sent to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness–persistence–impairment model of psychotic disorder
Available formats
×

Send article to Dropbox

To send this article to your Dropbox account, please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your <service> account. Find out more about sending content to Dropbox.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness–persistence–impairment model of psychotic disorder
Available formats
×

Send article to Google Drive

To send this article to your Google Drive account, please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your <service> account. Find out more about sending content to Google Drive.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness–persistence–impairment model of psychotic disorder
Available formats
×
×

Reply to: Submit a response

Please enter your response.

Your details

Please enter a valid email address.

Conflicting interests

Do you have any conflicting interests? *