Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-r6qrq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T21:15:59.684Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Interaction of Climate Change and Agency in the Collapse of Civilizations ca. 2300–2000 BC

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 February 2016

Malcolm H. Wiener
Malcolm H. Wiener*
Affiliation:
Institute for Aegean Prehistory, 66 Vista Drive, Greenwich, CT 06830 USA
*
Corresponding author: mhwiener@villacandia.com
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Human history has been marked by major episodes of climate change and human response, sometimes accompanied by independent innovations. In the Bronze Age, the sequencing of causes and reactions is dependent in part on dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating. This paper explores the interaction of a major, prolonged desiccation event between c. 2300 and 2000 BC and human agency including migrations, the displacement of trading networks, warfare, the appearance of weapons made of bronze, and the first appearance of sailing vessels in the Mediterranean.

Keywords

archaeological sciencecivilizational collapseclimate4.2 ka cal BP eventEarly Bronze Age in AegeanAnatoliaCreteCycladesGreeceEgyptLevant
Type
Articles
Information
Radiocarbon , Volume 56 , Issue 4 , 2014 , pp. S1 - S16
Copyright
Copyright © 2014 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona 

References

Aimers, J., and Hodell., D. 2011. “Societal collapse”: Drought and the Maya. Nature 479(7371):44–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akkermans, P. M. M. G., and Schwartz, G. M., 2003. The Archaeology of Syria: From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (c. 16,000–300 BC). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Amzallag, N., 2009. From metallurgy to Bronze Age civilizations: The synthetic theory. American Journal of Archaeology 113(4):497–519.Google Scholar
Angelopoulou, A., 2006. The lead seal and clay sealings. In Markiani, Amorgos: An Early Bronze Age Fortified Settlement. Overview of the 1985–1991 Investigations, edited by Marangou, L., Renfrew, C., Doumas, C., and Gavalas, G. British School at Athens Supplement 40. British School at Athens, London; pp. 219–223.Google Scholar
Arnott, R., 2001. Disease and Minoan Crete. Paper presented at the 9th International Congress of Cretan Studies, 1-6 October 2001, Elounda, Crete.Google Scholar
Arrivabeni, M., 2012. Post-Akkadian settlement distribution in the Leilan region survey. In Seven Generations since the Fall of Akkad, edited by Weiss, H. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden; pp. 261–278.Google Scholar
Astour, M. C., 2002. A reconstruction of the history of Ebla (part 2). In Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language. Volume 4, edited by Gordon, C. H., and Rendsburg, G. A. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake; pp. 57–195.Google Scholar
Barber, E. J. W., 1991. Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Princeton University Press, Princeton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bard, K. A., 2008. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell, Malden.Google Scholar
Barjamovic, G., 2012. Text, trees and stratigraphy: New evidence from Kültepe for an absolute chronology of the ancient Near East. Paper presented at 58e Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale: “Private and State,” 16-20 July 2012, Leiden.Google Scholar
Bell, B., 1971. The Dark Ages in ancient history. I. The first Dark Age in Egypt. American Journal of Archaeology 75(1):1–26.Google Scholar
Bertemes, F., 2011. Tavçan Adası—Eine minoische Hafensiedlung nördlich von Didyma. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Istanbul 9:9.Google Scholar
Betancourt, P. P., 2012. Cyprus and Crete: The transformation of the Minoan met-alworking industry. In Eastern Mediterranean Metallurgy and Metalwork in the Second Millennium B.C. A Conference in Honour of James D. Muhly, Nicosia, 10th—11th October 2009, edited by Kassianidou, V., and Papasavvas, G. Oxbow, Oxford; pp. 129–134.Google Scholar
Bietak, M., 2010. From where came the Hyksos and where did they go? In The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth—Seventeenth Dynasties): Current Research, Future Prospects, edited by Marée, M. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 192. Uitgeverij Peeters and Department of Oosterse Studies, Leuven; pp. 139–181.Google Scholar
Bietak, M., 2013. Antagonisms in historical and radiocarbon chronology. In Radiocarbon and the Chronologies of Ancient Egypt, edited by Shortland, A. J., and Bronk Ramsey, C. Oxbow, Oxford; pp. 78–110.Google Scholar
Bintliff, J., 2012. Environmental degradation and the decline of ancient complex societies in the Mediterranean region. In Variabilités environnementales, mutations sociales. Nature, intensités, échelles et temporalités des changements. XXXIIe rencontres internationales d'archéologie et d'histoire d'Antibes, edited by Bertoncello, F., and Braemer, F. Éditions APDCA, Antibes; pp. 213–220.Google Scholar
Booth, R. K., Jackson, S. T., Forman, S. L., Kutzbach, J. E., Bettis, E. A. III, Kreig, J., and Wright, D. K., 2005. A severe centennial-scale drought in mid-continental North America 4200 years ago and apparent global linkages. The Holocene 15(3):321–328.Google Scholar
Borgna, E., and Guida, P. C., 2009. Seafarers and land-travellers in the Bronze Age of the Northern Adriatic. In A Connecting Sea: Maritime Interaction in Adriatic Prehistory, edited by Forenbaher, S. British Archaeological Reports International Series 2037. Archaeopress, Oxford; pp. 89–104.Google Scholar
Bottema, S., and Sarpaki, A., 2003. Environmental change in Crete: A 9000-year record of Holocene vegetation history and the effect of the Santorini eruption. The Holocene 13(5):733–749.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourdieu, P., 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Translated by Nice, R. Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology 16. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P., 1990. The Logic of Practice. Translated by Nice, R. Stanford University Press, Redwood City.Google Scholar
Branigan, K., 2012. The genesis of the Early Minoan tholos tomb. In PHILISTOR: Studies in Honor of Costis Davaras, edited by Mantzourani, E., and Betancourt, P. P. INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia; pp. 8–14.Google Scholar
Braudel, F., 1972. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Translated by Reynolds, S. Harper and Row, New York.Google Scholar
Brogan, T. M., 2013. “Minding the gap”: Reexamining the Early Cycladic III “gap” from the perspective of Crete. A regional approach to relative chronology, networks, and complexity in the Late Prepalatial Period. American Journal of Archaeology 117(4):555–567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broodbank, C., 2000. An Island Archaeology of the Early Cyclades. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Broodbank, C., 2010. “Ships a-sail from over the rim of the sea”: Voyaging, sailing and the making of Mediterranean societies c. 3500-500 BC. In The Global Origins of Seafaring, edited by Anderson, A., Barrett, J. H., and Boyle, K., McDonald Institute Monographs. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge; pp. 255–256.Google Scholar
Broodbank, C., 2013a. The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Emergence of the Classical World. Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Broodbank, C., 2013b. “Minding the gap”: Thinking about change in Early Cycladic island societies from a comparative perspective. American Journal of Archaeology 117(4):535–543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broodbank, C., and Strasser, T. F., 1991. Migrant farmers and the Neolithic colonization of Crete. Antiquity 65(247):233–245.Google Scholar
Bryce, T., 1998. The Kingdom of the Hittites. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W., 1995. Environmental change in the Near East and human impact on the land. In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, edited by Sasson, J. M. Scribners, New York; pp. 123–151.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W., 2012. Collapse, environment, and society. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the USA 109(10):3632–3639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carington Smith, J., 1975. Spinning, Weaving and Textile Manufacture in Prehistoric Greece. Doctoral dissertation, University of Tasmania, Hobart.Google Scholar
Carington Smith, J., 1992. Spinning and weaving equipment. In Excavations at Nichoria in Southwest Greece. Volume 2, The Bronze Age Occupation , edited by Macdonald, W. A., and Wilkie, N. C. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis; pp. 674–711.Google Scholar
Carpenter, R., 1966. Discontinuity in Greek Civilization (The J.H. Gray Lectures for 1965). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Carter, R., 2006. Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf in the sixth and fifth millennia BC. Antiquity 80(307):52–63.Google Scholar
Cavanagh, W., and Mee, C., 2011. Minding the gaps in Early Helladic Laconia. In Our Cups Are Full: Pottery and Society in the Aegean Bronze Age. Papers Presented to Jeremy B. Rutter on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday, edited by Gauss, W., Lindblom, M., Smith, R. A. K., and Wright, J. C. Archaeopress, Oxford; pp. 40–50.Google Scholar
Chapin, A. P., Davis, B., Hitchcock, L. A., and Banou, E., 2012. The Vapheio tholos tomb and the construction of a symbolic landscape in Laconia. Paper presented at the 14e Rencontre Égéenne Internationale. Physis: L'environnement natural et la relation homme-milieu dans le monde égéen protohistorique, 11-14 December, Paris.Google Scholar
Choleva, M., 2012. The first wheelmade pottery at Lerna: Wheel-thrown or wheel-fashioned? Hesperia 81:343–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, J. A., 2004. Soils and land use at Pseira. In Pseira VIII: The Archaeological Survey of Pseira Island, Part 1, edited by Betancourt, P. P., and Davaras, C. INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia; pp. 27–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, E. R., 2013. Megadroughts, ENSO, and the invasion of Late-Roman Europe by the Huns and Avars. In The Ancient Mediterranean Environment between Science and History, edited by Harris, W. V. Brill, Leiden; pp. 89–102.Google Scholar
Cooper, L., 2006. The demise and regeneration of Bronze Age urban centers in the Euphrates Valley of Syria. In After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Schwartz, G. M., and Nichols, J. J., University of Arizona Press, Tucson; pp. 18–37.Google Scholar
Crego, D. M., 2010. Ayia Irini IV: A distribution center for the Middle Helladic world? In Mesohelladika: The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age, edited by Philippa-Touchais, A., Touchais, G., Voutsaki, S., and Wright, J. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Supplement 52. École française d'Athènes, Athens; pp. 841–845.Google Scholar
Cullen, T., Talalay, L. E., Keller, D. R., Karimali, L., and Farrand, W. R., 2013. The Prehistory of the Paximadi Peninsula, Euboea. Prehistory Monographs 40. INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Cunningham, T. F., 2012. Palaikastro in the Bronze Age: The Archaeology of a Minoan Town. Doctoral dissertation, Université catholique de Louvain.Google Scholar
Davaras, C., and Betancourt, P. P., 2004. The Hagia Photia Cemetery. Volume 1, The Tomb Groups and Architecture. INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
deMenocal, P. B., 2001. Cultural responses to climate change during the Late Holocene. Science 292(5517):667–673.Google Scholar
de Miroschedji, P., 2010. Rise and collapse in the southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age. In Le ragioni del cambiamento: nascita, declino e crollo delle società tra fine del IV e inizio del I millennio a.C., Roma, 26-29 aprile 2006, atti del convegno internazionale, edited by Cardarelli, A., Cazzella, A., Frangipane, M., and Peroni, R. Scienze dell'Antichità 15 (2009). Università degli studi “LaSapienza,” Rome; pp. 101–129.Google Scholar
de Miroschedji, P., 2012. Egypt and southern Canaan in the third millennium BCE: Uni's Asiatic campaigns revisited. In All the Wisdom of the East: Studies in Near Eastern Archaeology and History in Honor of Eliezer D. Oren, edited by Gruber, M., Ahituv, S., Lehmann, G., and Talshir, Z. Orbus Biblicus et Orientalis 255. Academic Press, Fribourg; pp. 265–292.Google Scholar
Diaz, H. F., Trigo, R., Hughes, M. K., Mann, M. E., Xoplaki, E., and Barriopedro, D., 2011. Spatial and temporal characteristics of climate in medieval times revisited. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 92(11):1487–1500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, O., 1994. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Dickinson, O., 2006. The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: Continuity and Change between the Twelfth and Eighth Centuries BC. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Dickinson, O., 2010. The “third world” of the Aegean? Middle Helladic Greece revisited. In Mesohelladika: The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age, edited by Philippa-Touchais, A., Touchais, G., Voutsaki, S., and Wright, J. Bulletin de correspondance hellénique Supplement 52. École française d'Athènes, Athens; pp. 13–27.Google Scholar
Donley, D. L., 1971. Analysis of the Winter Climatic Pattern at the Time of the Mycenaean Decline. Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Doumas, Ch., 1992. An Early Cycladic “hooked-tang” spearhead from Naxos. In Studies in Honour of Vassos Karageorghis, edited by Ioannides, G. C., special issue. Kypriakai Spoudai 54–55(1990-1991):67–68.Google Scholar
Drysdale, R., Zanchetta, G., Hellstrom, J., Maas, R., Fallick, A., Pickett, M., Cartwright, I., and Piccini, L., 2006. Late Holocene drought responsible for the collapse of Old World civilizations is recorded in an Italian cave flowstone. Geology 34(2):101–104.Google Scholar
Eddy, J. A., 1976. The Maunder minimum. Science 192(4245):1189–1202.Google Scholar
Eddy, J. A., 1977. Climate and the changing sun. Climate Change 1(2):173–190.Google Scholar
Ellenblum, R., 2012. The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950–1072. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Erian, W., Katlan, B., and Babah, O., 2010. Drought vulnerability in the Arab region: Case study - Drought in Syria. Ten years of scarce water (2000-2010). Available online at http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/23905.Google Scholar
Falconer, S., 1994. Village economy and society in the Jordan Valley: A study of Bronze Age rural complexity. In Archaeological Views from the Countryside. Village Communities in Early Complex Societies, edited by Schwartz, G., and Falconer, S. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC; pp. 121–142.Google Scholar
Ferguson, R. B., 2014. The prehistory of war and peace in Europe and the Near East. In War, Peace, and Human Nature: The Convergence of Evolutionary and Cultural Views, edited by Fry, D. P. Oxford University Press, Oxford; pp. 191–240.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, I., and Langgut, D., forthcoming. Dry climate in the Middle Bronze I and its impact on settlement patterns in the Levant and beyond: New pollen evidence. Journal of Near Eastern Studies.Google Scholar
Finné, M., Holmgren, K., Sundqvist, H. S., Weiberg, E., and Lindblom, M., 2011. Climate in the Eastern Mediterranean, and adjacent regions, during the past 6000 years—A review. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(12):3153–3173.Google Scholar
Fisher, D., Osterberg, E., Dyke, A., Dahl-Jensen, D., Demuth, M., Zdanowicz, C., Bourgeois, J., Koerner, R. M., Mayewski, P., Wake, C., Kreutz, K., Steig, E., Zheng, J., Yalcin, K., Goto-Azuma, K., Luckman, B., and Rupper, S., 2008. The Mt Logan Holocene-Late Wisconsinan isotope record: Tropical Pacific-Yukon connections. The Holocene 18(5):667–677.Google Scholar
Forsén, J., 1992. The Twilight of the Early Helladics: A Study of the Disturbances in East-Central and Southern Greece towards the End of the Early Bronze Age. Paul Åström, Jonsered.Google Scholar
Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M., 2012. Pottery production and distribution in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. An application of pXRF analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(5):1380–1387.Google Scholar
Freemon, F. R., 2005. Bubonic plague in the Book of Samuel. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 98(9):436.Google Scholar
French, C. A. I., and Whitelaw, T. M., 1999. Soil erosion, agricultural terracing and site formation processes at Markiani, Amorgos, Greece: The micromorphological perspective. Geoarchaeology 14(2):151–189.Google Scholar
Gatto, M. C., 2009. The Aswan area at the dawn of Egyptian history. Egyptian Archaeology 35:12–15.Google Scholar
Gejvall, N.-G., 1969. Lerna: A Preclassical Site in the Argolid. Results of the Excavations Conducted by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Volume 1, The Fauna. American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Princeton.Google Scholar
Georgiadis, M., 2012. Kos in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. The Halasarna Finds and the Aegean Settlement Pattern. Prehistory Monographs 38. INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Getz-Gentle, P., 2011. Overview/panorama. In Zervos et l'art des Cyclades, edited by Caubet, A. Musée Zervos, Vézelay; pp. 17–39.Google Scholar
Giannopoulos, T. G., 2012. <for> Crete University Press, Herakleion.Google Scholar
Giddens, A., 1984. The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Giraudi, C., Magny, M., Zanchetta, G., and Drysdale, R. N., 2011. The Holocene climatic evolution of Mediterranean Italy: A review of the continental geological data. The Holocene 21(1):105–115.Google Scholar
Glanville, S. R. K., 1931. Records of a royal dockyard of the time of Tuthmosis III: Papyrus British Museum 10056. Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 66:105–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glassner, J.-J., 1993. Chroniques mésopotamiennes. La Roue à Livres 19. Les Belles Lettres, Paris.Google Scholar
Goedicke, H., 1984. The Canaanite illness. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur 11:91–105.Google Scholar
Gophna, R., and Portugali, Y., 1988. Settlement and demographic processes in Israel's coastal plain from the Chalcolithic to the Middle Bronze Age. Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research 269:3–36.Google Scholar
Grove, J. M., 1988. The Little Ice Age. Methuen, London.Google Scholar
Harbeck, M., Seifert, L., Hänsch, S., Wagner, D. M., Birdsell, D., Parise, K. L., Wiechmann, I., Grupe, G., Thomas, A., Keim, P., Zöller, L., Bramanti, B., Riehm, J. M., and Scholz, H. C., 2013. Yersinia pestis DNA from skeletal remains from the 6th century AD reveals insights into Justinianic plague. PLOS Pathogens 9(5):e1003349, doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003349.Google Scholar
Hauptmann, H., 1976. Die Entwicklung der Frühbronzezeitlichen Siedlung auf dem Norşuntepe in Ostanatolien. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 6:9–20.Google Scholar
Herr, S., and Clark, J. J., 1997. Patterns in the pathways: Early historic migrations in the Rio Grande pueblos. Kiva 62(4):365–389.Google Scholar
Hood, M. S. F., 1971. An Early Helladic import at Knossos and Anatolian connections. In Mélanges de préhistoire d'archéocivilization et d'ethnologie offerts à André Varagnac, edited by Marcel, G. Sevpen, Paris; pp. 427–436.Google Scholar
Hope Simpson, R., and Janko, R., 2011. Ayios Stephanos in southern Laconia and the locations of ancient Helos. Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 53:97–130.Google Scholar
Hsiang, S. M., Burke, M., and Miguel, E., 2013. Quantifying the influence of climate on human conflict. Science 341(6151):1212.Google Scholar
Huxley, G. L., and Coldstream, J. N., 1972. Trial excavations near Kastri. In Kythera: Excavations and Studies Conducted by the University of Pennsylvania Museum and the British School at Athens, edited by Coldstream, J. N., and Huxley, G. L. Faber and Faber Limited, London; pp. 67–76.Google Scholar
Keeley, L. H., 1996. War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Kennett, D. J., Breitenbach, S. F. M., Aquino, V. V., Asmerom, Y., Awe, J., Baldini, J. U. L., Bartlein, P., Culleton, B. J., Ebert, C., Jazwa, C., Macri, M. J., Marwan, N., Polyak, V., Prufer, K. M., Ridley, H. E., Sodemann, H., Winterhalder, B., and Haug, G. H., 2012. Development and disintegration of Maya political systems in response to climate change. Science 338(6108):788–791.Google Scholar
Kilian, K., 1986. The circular building at Tiryns. In Early Helladic Architecture and Urbanization. Proceedings of a Seminar Held at the Swedish Institute at Athens, June 8, 1985, edited by Hägg, R., and Konsola, D. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 76. Paul Åström, Göteborg; pp. 65–71.Google Scholar
Koliński, R., 2007. The upper Khabur region in the second part of the third millennium BC. Altorientalische Forschungen 34(2):342–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kontoleon, N. M., 1972. <for>. Praktika tis en Athinais Archaiologikis Etaireias 125:143–155.Google Scholar
Kouka, O., 2002. Siedlungsorganisation in der Nord- und Ostägäis während der Frühbronzezeit (3. Jt. v.Chr.). Internationale Archäologie 58. Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH, Rahden/Westf.Google Scholar
Kouka, O., 2009. Cross-cultural links and elite-identities: The eastern Aegean/western Anatolia and Cyprus from the early third millennium through the early second millennium BC. In Cyprus and the East Aegean: Intercultural Contacts from 3000 to 500 BC. An International Archaeological Symposium Held at Pythagoreion, Samos, October 17th—18th 2008, edited by Karageorghis, V., and Kouka, O. A.G. Leventis Foundation, Nicosia; pp. 31–47.Google Scholar
Kouka, O., 2013. “Minding the gap”: Against the gaps. The Early Bronze Age and the transition to the Middle Bronze Age in the northern and eastern Aegean/western Anatolia. American Journal of Archaeology 117(4):569–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langgut, D., Neumann, F. H., Stein, M., Wagner, A., Kagan, E. J., Boaretto, E., and Finkelstein, I., 2014. Dead Sea pollen record and history of human activity in the Judean Highlands (Israel) from the Intermediate Bronze into the Iron Ages (~2500-500 BCE). Palynology. doi:10.1080/01916122.2014.906001.Google Scholar
Larson, D. O., Neff, H., and Graybill, D. A., 1996. Risk, climatic variability, and the study of Southwestern prehistory: An evolutionary perspective. American Antiquity 61(2):217–241.Google Scholar
Magny, M., 1993. Solar influences on Holocene climatic changes illustrated by correlations between past lake-level fluctuations and the atmospheric 14C record. Quaternary Research 40(1):1–9.Google Scholar
Magny, M., Vannière, B., Zanchetta, G., Fouache, E., Touchais, G., Petrika, L., Coussot, C., Walter-Simonnet, A.-V., and Arnaud, F., 2009. Possible complexity of the climatic event around 4300-3800 cal. BP in the Central and Western Mediterranean. The Holocene 19(6):823–833.Google Scholar
Manning, S., 2013. Cyprus at 2200 BC: Rethinking the chronology of the Cypriot Early Bronze Age. In J. R. B. Stewart: An Archaeological Legacy, edited by Knapp, A. B., Webb, J. M., and McCarthy, A. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139. Åströms Förlag, Uppsala; pp. 1–21.Google Scholar
Maran, J., 1997. Neue Ansätze für die Beurteilung der Balkanisch-Ägäischen Beziehungen im 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In The Thracian World at the Crossroads of Civilizations I: Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Thracology, Constanţa-Mangalia-Tulcea, 20–26 May 1996, edited by Roman, P. Institutul Român de Tracologie, Bucharest; pp. 171–192.Google Scholar
Maran, J., 2007. Seaborne contacts between the Aegean, the Balkans and the Central Mediterranean in the 3rd millennium BC: The unfolding of the Mediterranean world. In Between the Aegean and Baltic Seas: Prehistory across Borders. Proceedings of the International Conference Bronze and Early Iron Age Interconnections and Contemporary Developments between the Aegean and the Regions of the Balkan Peninsula, Central and Northern Europe, University of Zagreb, 11–14 April 2005, edited by Galanaki, I., Tomas, H., Galanakis, Y., and Laffineur, R. Aegaeum 27. Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archeology de la Grèce antique and University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory, Liège and Austin; pp. 3–21.Google Scholar
Mariolopoulos, E. G., 1938. The Climate of Greece. A. A. Papaspyros, Athens.Google Scholar
Mark, S., 2009. The construction of the Khufu I vessel (c.2566 BC): A re-evaluation. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 38(1):133–152.Google Scholar
Matthews, R., 2002. Zebu: Harbingers of doom in Bronze Age western Asia? Antiquity 76(292):438–446.Google Scholar
Mayewski, P. A., Rohling, E. E., Stager, J. C., Karlén, W., Maasch, K. A., Meeker, L. D., Meyerson, E. A., Gasse, F., van Kreveld, S., Holmgren, K., Lee-Thorp, J., Rosqvist, G., Rack, F., Staubwasser, M., Schneider, R. R., and Steig, E. J., 2004. Holocene climate variability. Quaternary Research 62(3):243–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazar, A., 1990. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Doubleday, New York.Google Scholar
McAnany, P. A., and Yoffee, N., 2010. Questioning Collapse: Human Resilience, Ecological Vulnerability, and the Aftermath of Empire. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
McCormick, M., 2013. What climate science, Ausonius, Nile floods, rye, and thatch tell us about the environmental history of the Roman Empire. In The Ancient Mediterranean Environment between Science and History, edited by Harris, W. V. Brill, Leiden; pp. 61–88.Google Scholar
McCormick, M., Büntgen, U., Cane, M. A., Cook, E. R., Harper, K., Huybers, P., Litt, T., Manning, S. W., Mayewski, P. A., More, A. F. M., Nicolussi, K., Tegel, W., 2012. Climate change during and after the Roman Empire: Reconstructing the past from scientific and historical evidence. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 43(2):169–220.Google Scholar
McNeil, W., 1976. Plagues and Peoples. Anchor Books, New York.Google Scholar
Medina-Elizalde, M., and Rohling, E. J., 2012. Collapse of Classic Maya Civilization related to modest reduction in precipitation. Science 335(6071):956–959.Google Scholar
Middleton, G. D., 2012. Nothing lasts forever: Environmental discourses on the collapse of past societies. Journal of Archaeological Science 20(3):257–307.Google Scholar
Moody, J., 2009. Environmental change and Minoan sacred landscapes. In Archaeologies of Cult: Essays on Ritual and Cult in Crete in Honor of Geraldine C. Gesell, edited by D'Agata, A. L., and Van de Moortel, A. Hesperia Supplement 42. American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Princeton; pp. 241–249.Google Scholar
Muhly, J. D., 1993. Early Bronze Age tin and the Taurus. American Journal of Archaeology 97(2):239–253.Google Scholar
Muhly, J. D., 2013. Eastern Mediterranean metallurgy in the Final Neolithic/Late Chalcolithic: Crete enters the international world. Paper presented at the 114th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America, 3-6 January 2013, Seattle.Google Scholar
Nakou, G., 1999. The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean: Material Culture and History. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oxford Google Scholar
Nakou, G., 2007. Absent presences: Metal vessels in the Aegean at the end of the third millennium. In Metallurgy in the Early Bronze Age Aegean, edited by Day, P. M., and Doonan, R. C. P. Sheffield Studies in Aegean Archaeology 7. Oxbow, Oxford; pp. 224–244.Google Scholar
Nodarou, E., 2011. Pottery Production, Distribution and Consumption in Early Minoan West Crete: An Analytical Perspective. BAR International Series 2210. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Nowicki, K., 2013. Settlement patterns and social organization in Crete during the Final Neolithic and in the beginning of the Bronze Age, ca. 4000-3000 BC. Paper presented at Communities in Transition: The Circum-Aegean Later Neolthic Stages (ca. 5000/4800–3200/3000 BC), 7–9 June 2013, Athens.Google Scholar
O'Brien, S., 2013. Parables of decline: Popular fears and the use of crises in Aegean archaeological interpretation. In Tough Times: The Archaeology of Crisis and Recovery. Proceedings of the Graduate Archaeology at Oxford Conferences in 2010 and 2011, edited by van der Wilt, E. M., and Martínez Jiménez, J. BAR International Series 2478. Archaeopress, Oxford; pp. 13–22.Google Scholar
Oren, E. D., 2003. Interconnections between the southern Levant and the Aegean at the end of the Early Bronze Age. In Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies. Volume 27: Hayim and Miriam Tadmor, edited by Eph'al, I., Ben-Tor, A., and Machinist, P. Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem; pp. 10–17. In Hebrew.Google Scholar
Paine, R. R., 2000. If a population crashes in prehistory, and there is no paleodemographer there to hear it, does it make a sound? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 112(2):181–190.Google Scholar
Papazoglou-Manioudaki, L., 2010. The Middle Helladic and Late Helladic I periods at Aigion in Achaia. In Mesohelladika: The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age, edited by Philippa-Touchais, A., Touchais, G., Voutsaki, S., and Wright, J. Bulletin de correspondance hellénique Supplement 52. École française d'Athènes, Athens; pp. 129–141.Google Scholar
Parker, G., 2013. Global Crisis: War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Pavük, P., 2012. Of spools and discoid loom-weights: Aegean-type weaving at Troy revisited. In KOSMOS: Jewellery, Adornment and Textiles in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 13th International Aegean Conference, University of Copenhagen, Danish National Research Foundation's Centre for Textile Research, 21–26 April 2010, edited by Nosch, M.-L., and Laffineur, R. Aegaeum 33. Peeters, Leuven; pp. 121–130.Google Scholar
Pavúk, P., Pieniazek, M., and Riehl, S., forthcoming. Troy and the Troad in the 2nd millennium: Changing patterns of landscape use. In PHYSIS: L'environnement naturel et la relation homme-milieu dans le monde égéen protohistorique. 14ème Rencontre Égéenne Internationale, 11–14 décembre 2012, Paris, edited by Touchais, G., Laffineur, R., Andreou, S., Rougemont, F., Procopiou, H., and Fouache, E. Aegaeum.Google Scholar
Pederson, N., Hessl, A. E., Baatarbileg, N., Anchukaitis, K. J., and Di Cosmo, N., 2014. Pluvials, droughts, the Mongol Empire, and modern Mongolia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 111(12):4375–4379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peltenburg, E., 2007. Diverse settlement pattern changes in the Middle Euphrates Valley in the later third millennium B.C.: The contribution of Jerablus Tahtani. In Sociétés humaines et changement climatique à la fin du troisième millénaire: une crise a-t-elle eu lieu en haute Mésopotamie? Actes du Colloque de Lyon, 5–8 décembre 2005, edited by Kuzucuoğlu, C., and Marro, C. Varia Anatolica 19. Institut français d'études anatoliennes Georges-Dumézil, Istanbul; pp. 247–266.Google Scholar
Perrow, C., 1999. Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Pfälzner, P. 2012. The question of desurbanisation versus reurbanisation of the Syrian Jazirah in the late third and early second millennium BC. In Looking North: The Socioeconomic Dynamics of the Northern Mesopotamian and Anatolian Regions during the Late Third and Early Second Millennium BC, edited by Laneri, N., Pfälzner, P., and Valentini, S. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden; pp. 51–80.Google Scholar
Philippa-Touchais, A., 2007. Aeginetan matt-painted pottery at Middle Helladic Aspis, Argos. In Middle Helladic Pottery and Synchronisms. Proceedings of the International Workshop Held at Salzburg, 31 October—2 November 2004, edited by Felten, F., Gauss, W., and Smetana, R. Ägina-Kolonna Forschungen und Ergebnisse I. Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna; pp. 97–113.Google Scholar
Philippa-Touchais, A., 2011. “Cycles of collapse in Greek prehistory”: Reassessing social change at the beginning of the Middle Helladic and the Early Iron Age. In The “Dark Ages” Revisited. Acts of an International Symposium in Memory of William D.E. Coulson, University of Thessaly, Volos, 14–17 June 2007, edited by Mazarakis Ainian, A. University of Thessaly Press, Volos; pp. 31–44.Google Scholar
Phillips, J., 2008. Aegyptiaca on the Island of Crete in Their Chronological Context: A Critical Review. Vol. 2. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porter, A., 2007. You say potato, I say…. In Sociétés humaines et changement climatique à la fin du troisième millénaire: une crise a-t-elle eu lieu en Haute Mésopotamie? Actes du Colloque de Lyon, 5–8 décembre 2005, edited by Kuzucuoğlu, C., and Marro, C. Varia Anatolica 19. Institut français d'études anatoliennes Georges-Dumézil, Istanbul; pp. 69–115.Google Scholar
Porter, J. H., Parry, M. L., and Carter, T. R., 1991. The potential effects of climatic change on agricultural insect pests. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 57(1-3):221–240.Google Scholar
Rackham, O., and Moody, J., 1996. The Making of the Cretan Landscape. Manchester University Press, Manchester.Google Scholar
Rahmstorf, L., 2003. The identification of Early Helladic weights and their wider implications. In METRON: Measuring the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 9th International Aegean Conference, New Haven, Yale University, 18–21 April 2002, edited by Foster, K. P., and Laffineur, R. Aegaeum 24. Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archeology de la Grèce antique and University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory, Liège and Austin; pp. 293–299.Google Scholar
Rahmstorf, L., 2006a. In search of the earliest balance weights, scales and weighing systems from the East Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East. In Weights in Context: Bronze Age Weighing Systems of Eastern Mediterranean. Chronology, Typology, Material, and Archaeological Contexts. Proceedings of the International Colloquium, Rome, 22nd November—24th November 2004, edited by Alberti, M. E., Ascalone, E., and Peyronel, L. Studi e Materiali 13. Istituto Italiano di Numismatica, Rome; pp. 9–45.Google Scholar
Rahmstorf, L., 2006b. Zur Ausbreitung vorderasiatischer Innovationen in die frühbronzezeitliche Ägäis. Prähistorische Zeitschrift 81(1):49–96.Google Scholar
Rahmstorf, L., 2011. Re-integrating “diffusion”: The spread of innovations among the Neolithic and Bronze Age societies of Europe and the Near East. In Interweaving Worlds: Systemic Interactions in Eurasia, 7th to 1st Millennia BC, edited by Wilkinson, T. C., Sherratt, S., and Bennet, J. Oxbow, Oxford; pp. 100–119.Google Scholar
Rambach, J., 2001. Bermerkungen zur Zeitstellung der Apsidenhäuser in der Altis von Olympia. In Lux Orientis. Archäologie zwischen Asien und Europa, edited by Boehmer, R. M., and Maran, J. Internationale Archäologie, Studia honoraria 12. Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westfalen; pp. 327–332.Google Scholar
Rambach, J., 2002. Olympia. 2500 Jahre Vorgeschichte vor der Gründung des eisenzeitlichen griechischen Heiligtums. In Olympia 1875–2000. 125 Jahre Deutsche Ausgrabungen. Internationales Symposion, Berlin 9.-11. November 2000, edited by Kyrieleis, H. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein; pp. 191–200.Google Scholar
Rambach, J., 2004. Olympia im ausgehenden 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr.: Bindeglied zwischen zentralem und östlichem Mittelmeerraum. In Die Ägäische Frühzeit. 2. Serie: Forschungsbericht 1975–2002. 2. Band: Die Frühbronzezeit in Griechenland mit Ausnahme von Kreta, edited by Alram-Stern, E. Veröffentlichungen der Mykenischen Kommission 21. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna; pp. 1199–1242.Google Scholar
Rambeau, C., and Black, S., 2011. Paleoenvironments of the southern Levant 5,000 BP to present: linking the geological and archaeological records. In Water, Life and Civilisation: Climate, Environment and Society in the Jordan Valley, edited by Mithen, S., and Black, E. International Hydrology Series. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; pp. 94–104.Google Scholar
Redford, D. B., 1992. Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Regev, J., de Miroschedji, P., and Boaretto, E., 2012a. Early Bronze Age chronology: Radiocarbon dates and chronological models from Tel Yarmuth (Israel). Radiocarbon 54(3-4):505–524.Google Scholar
Regev, J., de Miroschedji, P., Greenberg, R., Braun, E., Greenhut, Z., and Boaretto, E., 2012b. Chronology of the Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant: New Analysis for a high chronology. Radiocarbon 54(3-4):525–566.Google Scholar
Reinholdt, C., 2008. Der frühbronzezeitliche Schmuckhortfund von Kap Kolonna: Ägina und die Ägäis im Goldzeitalter des 3. Jahrtausends v. Chr. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C., 1975. Trade as action at a distance: Questions of integration and communication. In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque; pp. 3–59.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C., 1977. Alternative models for exchange and spatial distribution. In Exchange Systems in Prehistory, edited by Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. Academic Press, New York; pp. 71–90.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C., Philaniotou, O., Brodie, N., and Gavalas, G., 2009. The Early Cycladic settlement at Dhaskalio, Keros: Preliminary report of the 2008 excavation season. Annual of the British School at Athens 104:27–47.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C., Boyd, M., and Bronk Ramsey, C., 2012. The oldest maritime sanctuary? Dating the sanctuary at Keros and the Cycladic Early Bronze Age. Antiquity 86(331):144–160.Google Scholar
Riehl, S., 2008. Changing growing conditions for crops during the Near Eastern Bronze Age (3000-1200 BC): The stable carbon isotope evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(4):1011–1022.Google Scholar
Riehl, S., 2009. Archaeobotanical evidence for the interrelationship of agricultural decision-making and climate change in the ancient Near East. Quaternary International 197(1-2):93–114.Google Scholar
Riehl, S., Pustovoytov, K. E., Weippert, H., Klett, S., and Hole, F., 2014. Drought stress variability in ancient Near Eastern agricultural systems evidenced by δ13C in barley grain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 111(34):12,348–12,353.Google Scholar
Ritner, R. K., 2000. Innovations and adaptations in ancient Egyptian medicine. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 59(2):107–117.Google Scholar
Roberts, N., Eastwood, W. J., Kuzucuoğlu, C., Fiorentino, G., and Caracuta, V., 2011. Climatic, vegetation and cultural change in the Eastern Mediterranean during the mid-Holocene environmental transition. The Holocene 21(1):147–162.Google Scholar
Rosen, A., 2007. Civilizing Climate: Social Responses to Climate Change in the Ancient Near East. AltaMira, Lanham.Google Scholar
Ruddiman, W. F., 2005. How did humans first alter global climate? Scientific American 292:46–53.Google Scholar
Rutter, J. B., 1988. Early Helladic III vasepainting, ceramic regionalism and the influence of basketry. In Problems in Greek Prehistory. Papers Presented at the Centenary Conference of the British School of Archaeology at Athens, Manchester April 1986, edited by French, E. B., and Wardle, K. A. Bristol Classical Press, Bristol; pp. 73–89.Google Scholar
Rutter, J. B., 2001. The Prepalatial Bronze Age of the southern and central Greek mainland. In Aegean Prehistory: A Review, edited by Cullen, T. American Journal of Archaeology Supplement 1. Archaeological Institute of America, Boston; pp. 95–147. Originally published in American Journal of Archaeology 97(4):745-797 (1993).Google Scholar
Rutter, J. B., 2008. The Anatolian roots of Early Helladic III drinking behavior. In Proceedings of the International Symposium The Aegean in the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age, October 13th—19th 1997, Urla—İzmir (Turkey), edited by Erkanal, H., Hauptmann, H., Şahoğlu, V., and Tuncel, R. Ankara University, Ankara; pp. 461–481.Google Scholar
Rutter, J. B., and Zerner, C. W., 1984. Early Hellado-Minoan contacts. In The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 31 May—5 June, 1982, edited by Hägg, R., and Marinatos, N. Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen 4°, 32. Paul Åström, Stockholm; pp. 75–83.Google Scholar
Şahoğlu, V., 2008. Liman Tepe and Bakla Tepe: New evidence for the relations between the Izmir region, the Cyclades and the Greek mainland during the late fourth and third millennia BC. In Proceedings of the International Symposium The Aegean in the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age, October 13th–19th 1997, Urla–İzmir (Turkey), edited by Erkanal, H., Hauptmann, H., Şahoğlu, V., and Tuncel, R. Ankara University, Ankara; pp. 483–501.Google Scholar
Salzer, M. W., Bunn, A. G., Graham, N. E., and Hughes, M. K., 2014. Five millennia of paleotemperature from tree-rings in the Great Basin, USA. Climate Dynamics 42(5-6):1517–1526.Google Scholar
Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S. R., Lenton, T. M., Bascompte, J., Brock, W., Dakos, V., van de Koppel, J., van de Leemput, I. A., Levin, S. A., van Nes, E. H., Pascual, M., and Vandermeer, J., 2012. Anticipating critical transitions. Science 338(6105):344–348.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G. M., 2007. Taking the long view on collapse: A Syrian perspective. In Sociétés humaines et changement climatique à la fin du troisième millénaire: une crise a-t-elle eu lieu en Haute Mésopotamie? Actes du Colloque de Lyon, 5–8 décembre 2005, edited by Kuzucuoğlu, C., and Marro, C. Varia Anatolica 19. Institut français d'études anatoliennes Georges-Dumézil, Istanbul; pp. 45–68.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G. M., Curvers, H. H., Dunham, S. S., and Weber, J. A., 2012. From urban origins to imperial integration in Western Syria: Umm el-Marra 2006, 2008. American Journal of Archaeology 116(1):157–193.Google Scholar
Shelach, G., 2012. The rise, decline and transformation of early regional states in China. Paper presented at Analyzing Collapse: Destruction, Abandonment and Memory, 10-16 December 2012, Jerusalem.Google Scholar
Sherratt, S., 2007. The archaeology of metal use in the Early Bronze Age Aegean: A review. In Metallurgy in the Early Bronze Age Aegean, edited by Day, P. M., and Doonan, R. C. P. Sheffield Studies in Aegean Archaeology 7. Oxbow, Oxford; pp. 245–263.Google Scholar
Siedentopf, H. B., 1991. Alt-Ägina. Volume 4.2, Mattbemalte Keramik der Mittleren Bronzezeit. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz.Google Scholar
Snodgrass, A. M., 1971. The Dark Age of Greece: An Archaeological Survey of the Eleventh to the Eighth Centuries BC. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Snodgrass, A. M., 2006. The rejection of Mycenaean culture and the Oriental connection. In Archaeology and the Emergence of Greece. Collected Papers 1965–2002. Cornell University Press, Ithaca; pp. 158–172.Google Scholar
Sohl, M., 2010. Tackling the drought in Syria. Nature Middle East, 27 September. doi:10.1038/nmiddleeast.2010.206.Google Scholar
Sotirakopoulou, P., 1993. The chronology of the Kastri Group reconsidered. Annual of the British School at Athens 88:5–20.Google Scholar
Spitaels, P., 1984. The Early Helladic period in mine no. 3 (Theatre Sector). In Thorikos 1972/76. Vol. 8, Rapport préliminaire sur les 9e, 10e, 11e et 12e campagnes de fouilles, edited by Mussche, H. F., Bingen, J., Servais, J., and Spitaels, P. Comité des fouilles belges en Grèce, Ghent; pp. 151–174.Google Scholar
Stanley, J.-D., Krom, M. D., Cliff, R. A., and Woodward, J. C., 2003. Short contribution: Nile flow failure at the end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt: Strontium isotopic and petrologic evidence. Geoarchaeology 18(3):395–402.Google Scholar
Staubwasser, M., and Weiss, H., 2006. Holocene climate and cultural evolution in late prehistoric-early historic West Asia. Quaternary Research 66(3):372–387.Google Scholar
Stos-Gale, Z. A., Gale, N. H., and Gilmore, G. R., 1984. Early Bronze Age Trojan metal sources and Anatolians in the Cyclades. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 3(3):23–43.Google Scholar
Tallet, P., 2013. The Wadi el-Jarf site: A harbor of Khufu on the Red Sea. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 5(1):76–84.Google Scholar
Televantou, C. A., 2008. Strofilas: A Neolithic settlement on Andros. In Horizon: A Colloquium on the Prehistory of the Cyclades, edited by Brodie, N., Doole, J., Gavalas, G., and Renfrew, C. McDonald Institute Monographs. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge; pp. 43–53.Google Scholar
Thompson, L. G., Mosley-Thompson, E., Davis, M. E., Henderson, K. A., Brecher, H. H., Zagorodnov, V. S, Mashiotta, T. A., Lin, P.-N., Mikhalenko, V. N., Hardy, D. R., and Beer, J., 2002. Kilimanjaro ice core records: Evidence of Holocene climate change in tropical Africa. Science 298(5593):589–593.Google Scholar
Tomkins, P., 2012. Behind the horizon: Reconsidering the genesis and function of the ‘First Palace’ at Knossos (Final Neolithic IV-Middle Minoan IB). In Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age, edited by Schoep, I., Tomkins, P., and Driessen, J. Oxbow, Oxford; pp. 32–80.Google Scholar
Touzeau, A., Blichert-Toft, J., Amiot, R., Fourel, F., Martineau, F., Cockitt, J., Hall, K., Flandrois, J.-P., and Lécuyer, C., 2013. Egyptian mummies record increasing aridity in the Nile Valley from 5500 to 1500 yr before present. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 375:92–100.Google Scholar
Triantaphyllou, M. V., Ziveri, P., Gogou, A., Marino, G., Lykousis, V., Bouloubassi, I., Emeis, K.-C., Kouli, K., Dimiza, M., Roselle-Melé, A., Papanikolaou, M., Katsouras, G., and Nunez, N., 2009. Late Glacial-Holocene climate variability at the south-eastern margin of the Aegean Sea. Marine Geology 266(1-4):182–197.Google Scholar
Ur, J., 2010a. Cycles of civilization in northern Mesopotamia, 4400-2000 BC. Journal of Archaeological Research 18(4):387–431.Google Scholar
Ur, J., 2010b. Urbanism and Cultural Landscapes in Northeastern Syria: The Tell Hamoukar Survey 1999–2001. Oriental Institute Publications 137. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Van Andel, T. H., Runnels, C. N., and Pope, K. O., 1986. Five thousands[sic] years of land use and abuse in the southern Argolid, Greece. Hesperia 55(1):103–128.Google Scholar
Van de Moortel, A., 2013. The emergence of a warlike elite at Mitrou, East Lokris, in the Prepalatial Bronze Age. Paper presented at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 10 October 2013, Athens.Google Scholar
Vitale, S., 2013. The Asklupis reconsidered: A preliminary report on the chronology and burial practices of an Early Bronze Age 2 cemetery on Kos. Aegean Archaeology 10:47–63.Google Scholar
von den Driesch, A., and Boessneck, J., 1990. Die Tierreste von der mykenischen Burg Tiryns bei Nauplion/Peloponneses. In Tiryns: Forschungen und Berichte XI, edited by Weisshaar, H.-J, Weber-Hiden, I., von den Driesch, A., Boessneck, J., Rieger, A., and Böser, W. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein; pp. 87–164.Google Scholar
Wachsmann, S., 1998. Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Walker, M. J. C., Berkelhammer, M., Björck, S., Cwynar, L. C., Fisher, D. A., Long, A. J., Lowe, J. J., Newnham, R. M., Rasmussen, S. O., and Weiss, H., 2012. Formal subdivision of the Holocene Series/Epoch: A discussion paper by a Working Group of INTIMATE (Integration of the ice-core, marine and terrestrial records) and the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (International Commission on Stratigraphy). Journal of Quaternary Science 27(7):649–659.Google Scholar
Wang, Y., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., He, Y., Kong, X., An, Z., Wu, J., Kelly, M. J., Dykoski, C. A., and Li, X., 2005. The Holocene Asian monsoon: Links to solar changes and North Atlantic climate. Science 308(5723):854–857.Google Scholar
Watrous, L. V., 2004. State formation (Middle Minoan IA). In The Plain of Phais-tos: Cycles of Social Complexity in the Mesara Region of Crete, edited by Watrous, L. V., Hadzi-Vallianou, D., and Blitzer, H. Monumenta Archaeologica 23. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles; pp. 253–276.Google Scholar
Watrous, L. V., and Hadzi-Vallianou, D., 2004. Conclusions. In The Plain of Phais-tos: Cycles of Social Complexity in the Mesara Region of Crete, edited by Watrous, L. V., Hadzi-Vallianou, D., and Blitzer, H. Monumenta Archaeologica 23. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles; pp. 443–449.Google Scholar
Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D., 1999. Characterizing the Philia facies. Material culture, chronology and the origin of the Bronze Age in Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 103(1):3–43.Google Scholar
Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D., 2013. Cultural regionalism and divergent social trajectories in Early Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 117(1):59–81.Google Scholar
Wedde, M., 2000. Towards a Hermeneutics of Aegean Bronze Age Ship Imagery. Peleus: Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Griechenlands und Zyperns 6. Bibliopolis, Mannheim.Google Scholar
Weiberg, E., and Finné, M., 2013. Mind or matter? People-environment interactions and the demise of Early Helladic II society in the northeastern Peloponnese. American Journal of Archaeology 117(1):1–31.Google Scholar
Weingarten, J., Macveagh Thorne, S., Prent, M., and Crouwel, J. H., 2011. More Early Helladic sealings from Geraki in Laconia, Greece. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 30(2):131–163.Google Scholar
Weiss, H., 2012. Quantifying collapse: The late third millennium Khabur Plains. In Seven Generations since the Fall of Akkad, edited by Weiss, H. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden; pp. 1–24.Google Scholar
Weiss, H., 2013. The northern Levant during the Intermediate Bronze Age: Altered trajectories. In Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant, edited by Killebrew, A., and Steiner, M. Oxford University Press, Oxford; pp. 367–387.Google Scholar
Weiss, H., and Bradley, R. S., 2001. What drives societal collapse? Science 291(5504):609–610.Google Scholar
Weiss, H., and Courty, M.-A., 1993. The genesis and collapse of the Akkadian Empire: The accidental refraction of historical law. In Akkad, the First World Empire, edited by Liverani, M. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg; pp. 131–155.Google Scholar
Weiss, H., Courty, M.-A., Wellerstrom, W., Guichard, F., Senior, L., Meadow, R., and Currow, A., 1993. The genesis and collapse of third millennium north Mesopotamian civilization. Science 261(5124):995–1004.Google Scholar
Weninger, B., 2014. Archaeological and palaeoclimatological data to evaluate the potential impact of the 4.2 ka calBP event in the Aegean and Southeast Europe. Paper presetned at Tenth Annual University of Chicago Oriental Institute Seminar, The Early/Middle Bronze Age Transition in the Ancient Near East: Chronology, C14, and Climate Change, 7-8 March 2014, Chicago.Google Scholar
Wenxiang, W., and Tungsheng, L., 2004. Possible role of the “Holocene Event 3” on the collapse of Neolithic cultures around the Central Plain of China. Quaternary International 117(1):153–166.Google Scholar
Wiencke, M. H., 2000. Lerna: A Preclassical Site in the Argolid. Volume 4, The Architecture, Stratification, and Pottery of Lerna III. The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Princeton.Google Scholar
Wiener, M. H., 2013. Realities of power: The Minoan thalassocracy in historical perspective. In AMIA: The Quest for Excellence. Studies in Honor of Guenter Kopcke, edited by Koehl, R. INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia; pp. 149–173.Google Scholar
Wiener, M. H., forthcoming a. Oh, no—Not another chronology! In The Art and Culture of Ancient Egypt: Studies in Honor of Dorothea Arnold, edited by Oppenheim, A., and Goelet, O. Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar of New York 19.Google Scholar
Wiener, M. H., forthcoming b. Progress and problems in Old World chronology: Dating by archaeology, texts, astronomy, tree rings, and radiocarbon, with the controversy over the dating of the Theran eruption and the beginning of the Late Bronze Age in the Aegean as a case study. Publisher?.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, T. J., 1994. The structure and dynamics of dry-farming states in Upper Mesopotamia. Current Anthropology 35(5):483–520.Google Scholar
Wilson, D., 2008. Early Palatial Crete. In The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Shelmerdine, C.W. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; pp. 77–104 Google Scholar
Yancheva, G., Nowaczyk, N. R., Mingram, J., Dulski, P., Schettler, G., Negendank, J. F. W., Liu, J., Sigman, D. M., Peterson, L. C., and Haug, G. H., 2007. Influence of the intertropical convergence zone on the East Asian monsoon. Nature 445(7123):74–77.Google Scholar
Yasuda, Y., 2013. Decline of the Yangtze River civilization. In Water Civilization: From Yangtze to Khmer Civilizations, edited by Yasuda, Y. Advances in Asian Human-Environment Research. Springer Japan, Tokyo; pp. 47–63.Google Scholar
Yasur-Landau, A., 2010. The Philistines and Aegean Migration at the End of the Late Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Yener, K. A., 1995. Early Bronze Age tin processing at Göltepe and Kestel, Turkey. In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Volume 3, edited by Sasson, J. M. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York; pp. 1519–1521.Google Scholar
Yener, K. A., and Vandiver, P. B., 1993a. Tin processing at Göltepe, an Early Bronze Age site in Anatolia. American Journal of Archaeology 97(2):207–238.Google Scholar
Yener, K. A., and Vandiver, P. B., 1993b. Reply to J.D. Muhly, “Early Bronze Age tin and the Taurus.” American Journal of Archaeology 97(2):255–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoffee, N., 1988. The collapse of ancient Mesopotamian states and civilization. In The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, edited by Yoffee, N., and Cowgill, G. University of Arizona Press, Tucson; pp. 44–68.Google Scholar
Yon, M., 2006. The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake.Google Scholar
Zachos, K., and Dousougli, A., 2008. Observations on the Early Bronze Age sealings from the Cave of Zas at Naxos. In Horizon: A Colloquium on the Prehistory of the Cyclades, edited by Brodie, N., Doole, J., Gavalas, G., and Renfrew, C. McDonald Institute Monographs. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge; pp. 85–96.Google Scholar
Zerefos, C. S., and Zerefos, E. C., 1978. Climatic change in Mycenaean Greece: A citation to Aristotle. Archiv für Meteorologie Geophysik und Bioklimatologie (Series B) 26:297–303.Google Scholar
Zwickel, W., 2012. Hungersnöte in der südlichen Levante vom 14. Jh. v. Chr. bis zum 1. Jh. n. Chr. In All the Wisdom of the East: Studies in Near Eastern Archaeology and History in Honor of Eliezer D. Oren, edited by Gruber, M., Ahituv, S., Lehmann, G., and Talshir, Z. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 255. Academic Press, Fribourg; pp. 453–466.Google Scholar