Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-9knnw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-08T14:17:26.111Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Childhood and Adolescent Depression

I. Epidemiological and Aetiological Aspects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Adrian Angold
Adrian Angold*
Affiliation:
MRC Child Psychiatry Unit, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Depression in childhood and adolescence has become a topic of considerable research interest in the last decade. A number of studies ranging over the last half-century provide information about the prevalence of depressive symptoms and syndromes in non-referred populations. These studies are critically reviewed in the light of an analysis of the various meanings that the term ‘depression’ may carry, and a variety of methodological issues. The sparse evidence for the involvement of a number of potential risk factors for depressive disorders is then considered and suggestions for future work in this area are outlined.

Information

Type
Review Article
Information
The British Journal of Psychiatry , Volume 152 , Issue 5 , May 1988 , pp. 601 - 617
Copyright
Copyright © Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1988 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Achenbach, T. M. & Edelbrock, C. S. (1981) Behavioral Problems and Competencies Reported by Parents of Normal and Disturbed Children Aged Four Through Sixteen. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 46, No. 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albert, N. & Beck, A. T. (1975) The incidence of depression in early adolescence: a preliminary study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 4, 301–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amenson, C. S. & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1981) An investigation into the observed sex difference in prevalence of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 1–13.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (1980) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edn) Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. C., Williams, S., McGee, R. & Silva, P. A. (1987) DSM–III disorders in preadolescent children: prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 69–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angold, A. (1988) Childhood and adolescent depression: II. Research in clinical populations. British Journal of Psychiatry (in press).Google Scholar
Angold, A. Weissman, M. M., John, K., Merikangas, K. R., Prusoff, B. A., Wickramaratne, P. & Gammon, G. D. (1987) Parent and child reports of depressive symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28, 901–915.Google Scholar
Angst, J. & Dobla-Mikola, A. (1984) The definition of depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 18, 401–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beardslee, W. R., Bemporad, J., Keller, M. B. & Klerman, G. L. (1983) Children of parents with major affective disorder: a review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 825–832.Google Scholar
Bennett, I. (1960) Delinquent and Neurotic Children: a Comparative Study. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Black, D. (1978) Annotation: the bereaved child. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19, 287–292.Google Scholar
Block, J. H., Block, J. & Gjerde, P. F. (1986) The personality of children prior to divorce: a prospective study. Child Development, 57, 827–840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, J. H. & Weissman, M. M. (1981) Epidemiology of affective disorders: a re-examination and future directions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 1039–1046.Google Scholar
Boyle, G. J. (1985) Self-report measures of depression: some psychometric considerations. British Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 24, 45–59.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A. & Cantwell, D. P. C. (1980) A survey of depressive symptoms, syndrome and disorder in a child psychiatric population. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 21, 19–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, G. A. & Garber, J. (1986) Developmental issues in the classification of depression in children. In Depression in Young People: Issues and Perspectives (eds Rutter, M., Izard, C. and Read, P.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Coddington, R. D. (1972a) The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children – 1. A survey of professional workers. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16, 7–18.Google Scholar
Coddington, R. D. (1972b) The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children – II. A study of normal population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16, 205–213.Google Scholar
Costello, A. J. (1986) Assessment and diagnosis of affective disorders in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 565–574.Google Scholar
Cox, A. D., Puckering, C., Pound, A. & Mills, M. (1987) The impact of maternal depression in young children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28, 917–928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cullen, K. J. & Boundy, C. A. P. (1966) The prevalence of behavior disorders in the children of 1000 Western Australian families. Medical Journal of Australia, 2, 805–808.Google Scholar
Cummings, J. D. (1944) The incidence of emotional symptoms in school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 14, 151–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummings, J. D. (1946) A follow-up of emotional symptoms in school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 16, 163–177.Google Scholar
Cytryn, L., McKnew, D. H., Zahn-Waxler, C. & Gershon, E. (1986) Developmental issues in risk research: the offspring of affectively ill patients. In Depression in Young People: Issues and Perspectives (eds Rutter, M., Izard, C. and Read, P.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Davenport, Y. B., Zahn-Waxler, C., Adland, M. L. & Mayfield, A. (1984) Early child-rearing practices in families with a manic–depressive parent. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 230–235.Google ScholarPubMed
Davidson, J., Turnbull, C., Strickland, R. & Belyea, M. (1984) Comparative diagnostic criteria for melancholia and endogenous depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 506–511.Google Scholar
Davie, R., Butler, N. & Goldstein, H. (1972) Behaviour and adjustment. From Birth to Seven. London: National Children's Bureau.Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S. & Repucci, N. D. (1973) Learned helplessness and reinforcement responsibility in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 109–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dweck, C. S. & Licht, B. (1980) Learned helplessness and intellectual achievement. In Human Helplessness: Theory and Applications (eds Garber, J. & Seligman, M.). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Edelbrock, C. & Achenbach, T. M. (1980) A typology of child behavior profile patterns: distribution and correlates for disturbed children aged 6–16. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8, 441–470.Google Scholar
Van Eerdewegh, M. M., Bieri, M. D., Parilla, R. H. & Clayton, P. J. (1982) The bereaved child. British Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 23–29.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, J. G., Gersten, J. C., Langner, T. S., McCarthy, E. D. & Simcha-Fagan, D. (1976) A behaviour classification of welfare children from survey data. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 46, 447–463.Google Scholar
Feigner, J. P., Robins, E., Guze, S. B., Woodruff, R. A., Winokur, G. & Munoz, R. (1972) Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Archives of General Psychiatry, 26, 57–63.Google Scholar
Fincham, F. D. & Cain, K. M. (1986) Learned helplessness in humans: a developmental analysis. Developmental Review, 6, 301–333.Google Scholar
Fogelman, K. (1976) Britain's Sixteen Year Olds. London: National Children's Bureau.Google Scholar
Gaensbauer, M. D., Harmon, R. J., Cytryn, L. & McKnew, D. H. (1984) Social and affective development in infants with a manic depressive parent. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 223–229.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1983) Stressors of childhood. In Stress, Coping and Development in Children (eds Garmezy, N. and Rutter, M.). London: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1986) Developmental aspects of children's responses to the stress of separation and loss. In Depression in Young People: Issues and Perspectives (eds Rutter, M., Izard, C. and Read, P.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. & Rutter, M. (1983) Stress, Coping and Development in Children. London: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Gersten, J. C., Langner, T. S., Eisenberg, J. G., Simcha-Fagan, O. & McCarthy, E. D. (1976) Stability and change in types of behavioral disturbance of children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 4, 111–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gittelman-Klein, R. (1977) Definitional and methodological issues concerning depressive illness in children. In Depression in Childhood: Diagnosis Treatment and Conceptual Models (eds Schultebrandt, J. G. and Raskin, A.). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Goodyer, I., Kolvin, I. & Gatzanis, S. (1985) Recent undesirable life events and psychiatric disorder in childhood and adolescence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 517–523.Google Scholar
Griffiths, W. (1952) Behavior Difficulties of Children as Perceived and Judged by Parents, Teachers and Children Themselves. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Harter, S. (1985) Processes underlying the construction, maintenance and enhancement of the self-concept in children. In Psychological Perspectives on the Self, vol. 3 (eds Suls, J. and Greenwald, A.). Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hawton, K. (1982) Attempted suicide in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 23, 497–503.Google Scholar
Heinstein, M. (1969) Behavior Problems of Young Children in California. Berkeley, California: California Bureau of Maternal and Child Health.Google Scholar
Hersov, L. A. (1960) Refusal to go to school. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1, 137–145.Google Scholar
Hess, R. D. & Camera, K. A. (1979) Post-divorce family relationships as mediating factors in the consequences of divorce for children. Journal of Social Issues, 35, 79–96.Google Scholar
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M. & Cox, R. (1978) The aftermath of divorce. In Mother–child, father–child relationships (eds Stevens, J. H. and Matthews, H.). Washington DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.Google Scholar
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M. & Cox, R. (1979a) Play and social interaction in children following divorce. Journal of Social Issues, 35, 26–49.Google Scholar
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M. & Cox, R. (1979b) Family interaction and the social, emotional and cognitive development of children following divorce. In The Family – Setting Priorities (eds Vaughn, V. and Brazelton, T.). New York: Science and Medicine.Google Scholar
Hetherington, E. M., & Martin, B. (1979) Family interaction. In Psychopathological Disorders of Childhood (eds Quay, H. C. & Werry, J. S.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M. & Cox, R. (1982) Effects of divorce on parents and children. In Non-traditional Families (ed. Lamb, M. E.). Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hewitt, L. E. & Jenkins, R. L. (1946) Fundamental Patterns of Maladjustment: the Dynamics of their Origin. Springfield, Illinois: Green.Google Scholar
John, K. & Weissman, M. M. (1985) The familial and psychosocial measurement of depression. In The Measurement of Depression: Clinical Biological Psychological and Psychosocial Perspectives (eds Marsella, A. J., Hirschfield, R. M. A. and Katz, M.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
John, K., Gammon, G. D., Prusoff, B. A. & Warner, V. (1987) The Social Adjustment Inventory for Children and Adolescents (SAICA): testing of a new semistructured interview. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 26, 898–911.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B. & Davies, M. (1982) Epidemiology of depressive mood in adolescents: an empirical study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1205–1212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kandel, D. B. & Davies, M. (1986) Adult sequelae of adolescent depressive symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 255–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, S. L., Hong, G. & Weinhold, C. (1984a) Epidemiology of depressive symptomatology in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 91–98.Google Scholar
Kaplan, S. L., Landa, B., Weinhold, C. & Shenker, R. I. (1984b) Adverse health behaviors and depressive symptomatology in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 595–601.Google Scholar
Kashani, J. H. & Simonds, J. F. (1979) The incidence of depression in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 1203–1205.Google Scholar
Kashani, J. H., McGee, R. D., Clarkson, S. E., Anderson, J. C., Walton, L. E., William, S., Silva, P. A., Robins, A. J., Cytryn, L. & McKnew, D. H. (1983) Depression in a sample of nine year old children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 1217–1223.Google Scholar
Kaslow, N. J., Tanenbaum, R. L., Abramson, L. Y., Peterson, C. & Seligman, M. E. P. (1983) Problem solving deficits and depressive symptoms among children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 11, 597–502.Google Scholar
Kaslow, N. J., Rehm, L. P. & Siegel, A. W. (1984) Social-cognitive and cognitive correlates of depression in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 605–620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kellmer Pringle, M. L., Butler, N. R. & Davie, R. (1966) 11,000 Seven-Year-Olds. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Kendell, R. E. (1976) The classification of depressions: a review of contemporary confusion. British Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 15–28.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C. & Neighbors, H. W. (1986) A new perspective on relationships among race, social class, and psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 27, 107–115.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M. & Beck, A. T. (1977) An empirical–clinical approach toward a definition of childhood depression. In Depression in Childhood: Diagnosis Treatment and Conceptual Models (eds Schulterbrandt, J. G. & Raskin, A.). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M., Feinberg, T. L., Crouse-Novak, M. L., Paulauskas, S. L. & Finkelstein, R. (1984a) Depressive disorders in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 229–237.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M., Feinberg, T. L., Crouse-Novak, M. L., Paulauskas, S. L., Pollocks, M. & Finkelstein, R. (1984b) Depressive disorders in childhood – II. A longitudinal study of the risk for a subsequent major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 643–649.Google Scholar
Krupinski, J., Baikie, A. G., Stoller, A., Graves, J., O'Day, D. M. & Polke, P. (1967) A community health survey of Heyfield, Victoria. Medical Journal of Australia, 1, 1204–1211.Google Scholar
Kuperman, S. & Stewart, M. A. (1979) The diagnosis of depression in childhood. Journal of Affective Disorders, 1, 213–217.Google Scholar
Langner, T. S., Gersten, J. C., Greene, E. L., Eisenberg, J. C., Herson, J. H. & McCarthy, E. D. (1974) Treatment of psychological disorders among urban children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 170–179.Google Scholar
Lapouse, R. L. & Monk, M. A. (1964) Behavior deviations in a representative sample of children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 34, 436–447.Google Scholar
Leon, G. R., Kendall, P. C. & Garber, J. (1980) Depression in children: parent, teacher and child perspectives. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 221–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leslie, S. A. (1974) Psychiatric disorder in the young adolescents of an industrial town. British Journal of Psychiatry, 125, 113–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, H. (1954) Deprived Children. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, C. E., Siegel, J. M. P. & Lewis, M. A. (1984) Feeling bad: exploring the sources of distress among pre-adolescent children. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 117–122.Google Scholar
MacFarlane, J. W., Allen, L. & Honzik, M. P. (1954) A Developmental Study of the Behavior Problems of Normal Children Between Twenty-One Months and Fourteen Years. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
McClure, G. & Gould, M. (1984) Recent trends in suicide among the young. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 134–138.Google Scholar
McFie, B. S. (1934) Behavior and personality difficulties in school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 4, 30–46.Google Scholar
Miller, F. J. W., Court, S. D. M., Walton, W. S. & Knox, E. G. (1960) Growing Up in Newcastle upon Tyne. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mills, M., Puckering, C., Pound, A. & Cox, A. D. (1984) What is it about depressed mothers that influences their children's functioning? In Recent Research in Developmental Psychology (ed. Stevenson, J.), Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry Monograph Supplement No. 4. Oxford: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Monck, E. & Dobbs, R. (1985) Measuring life events in an adolescent population: methodological issues and related findings. Psychological Medicine, 15, 841–850.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Offer, D. (1969) The Psychological World of the Teenager. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Orvaschel, H. (1983) Parental depression and child psychopathology. In: Child Psychopathology and Development (eds Guze, S. B., Earls, F. J. Barrett, A. J. E.). NY: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Parker, G. (1979a) Parental characteristics in relation to depressive disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 138–147.Google Scholar
Parker, G. (1979b) Reported parental characteristics in relation to trait depression and anxiety levels in a non-clinical group. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 13, 260–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, G. (1981) Parental reports of depressives: an investigation of several explanations. Journal of Affective Disorders, 3, 131–140.Google Scholar
Parker, G. (1982) Parental representations and affective symptoms: examination for an hereditary link. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 55, 57–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearce, J. (1977) Depressive disorder in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 18, 79–82.Google Scholar
Poznanski, E. O., Mokros, H. B., Grossman, J. & Freeman, L. N. (1985) Diagnostic criteria in childhood depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1168–1173.Google Scholar
Quinton, D. & Rutter, M. (1985) Family pathology and child psychiatric disorder: a four year prospective study. In: Longitudinal Studies in Child Psychology and Psychiatry (ed. Nicol, A. R.). London: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Raskin, A., Boothe, H. H., Reatig, N. A., Schulterbrandt, J. G. & Odle, D. (1971) Factor analyses of normal and depressed patients' memories of parental behavior. Psychological Reports, 29, 871–879.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, M. J., Finkelstein, M., Ni, R. & Robertson, R. E. (1959) A Study of Mother–Child Relationships in the Emotional Disorders of Children. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 60, 65–116.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, M. J., Finkelstein, M., & Berkwitz, G. K. (1962) Father-child relationships and children's problems. Archives of General Psychiatry, 7, 360–373.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1966) Children of Sick Parents: an Environmental and Psychiatric Study. Institute of Psychiatry Maudsley Monographs. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1979–1980) Changing Youth in a Changing Society: Patterns of Adolescent Development and Disorder. London: Nuffield Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1981a) Maternal Deprivation Reassessed (2nd edn). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1981b) Epidemiological/longitudinal strategies and causal research in child psychiatry. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 20, 513–544.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1986a) The developmental psychopathology of depression: issues and perspectives. In Depression in Young People: Issues and Perspectives (eds Rutter, M., Izard, C. and Read, P.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1986b) Depressive feelings, cognitions and disorders: a research postscript. In Depression in Young People: Issues and Perspectives (eds Rutter, M., Izard, C. and Read, P.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Tizard, J. & Whitmore, K. (1970) Education, Health and Behavior. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Graham, P., Chadwick, O. F. D. & Yule, W. (1976) Adolescent turmoil: fact or fiction? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 35–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1984) Parental psychiatric disorder: effects on children. Psychological Medicine, 14, 853–880.Google Scholar
Schoenbach, V. J., Kaplan, B. H., Grimson, R. C. & Wagner, E. H. (1982) Use of a symptom scale to study the prevalence of a depressive syndrome in young adolescents. American Journal of Epidemiology, 116, 791–800.Google Scholar
Schoenbach, V. J., Garrison, C. Z. & Kaplan, B. H. (1984) Epidemiology of adolescent depression. Public Health Reviews, 12, 159–189.Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P., Peterson, C., Kaslow, N. J., Tanenbaum, R. L., Alloy, L. B. & Abramson, L. Y. (1984) Explanatory style and depressive symptoms among school children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 235–238.Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P., & Peterson, C., (1986) A learned helplessness perspective on childhood depression: theory and research. In: Depression in Young People: Issues and Perspectives (eds Rutter, M., Izard, C. and Read, P.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D. (1986) Developmental factors in child and adolescent suicide. In Depression in Young People: Issues and Perspectives (eds Rutter, M., Izard, C. and Read, P.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D. & Fisher, P. (1981) The epidemiology of suicide in children and young adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 20, 545–565.Google Scholar
Shepherd, M., Oppenheim, B. & Mitchell, S. (1971) Childhood Behaviour and Mental Health. New York: Grune and Stratton.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J. & Robins, E. (1978) Research Diagnostic Criteria: rationale and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 733–782.Google Scholar
Steinhausen, H. C. & Radtke, B. (1986) Life events and child psychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 125–129.Google Scholar
Strober, M. (1984) Familial aspects of depressive disorder in early adolescence. In: Current Perspectives on Major Depressive Disorders in Children (eds Weller, E. B. and Weller, R. A.). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Teri, L. (1982) The use of the Beck Depression Inventory with adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 277–284.Google Scholar
Tsuang, M. T., Winokur, G. & Crowe, R. R. (1980) Morbidity risk of schizophrenia and affective disorders among first degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia, mania, depression and surgical conditions. British Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 497–504.Google Scholar
Verhulst, F. C., Akkerhuis, G. W. & Althaus, M. (1985a) Mental health in Dutch children: (I) A cross-cultural comparison. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Suppl. 323, 72.Google Scholar
Verhulst, F. C., Berden, G. F. M. G. & Saunders-Woudstra, J. A. R. (1985b) Mental health in Dutch children: (II) The prevalence of psychiatric disorder and relationship between measures. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Suppl. 324, 72.Google Scholar
Wallerstein, J. S. (1983) Children of divorce: stress and developmental tasks. In Stress, Coping and Development in Children (eds Garmezy, N. and Rutter, M.). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Wallerstein, J. S. & Kelly, J. B. (1980) Surviving the Breakup: How Children and Parents Cope with Divorce. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Paykel, E. S. & Klerman, G. L. (1972) The depressed woman as mother. Social Psychiatry, 7, 98–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissman, M. M., & Paykel, E. S. (1974) The Depressed Woman: a Study of Social Relationships. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., & Klerman, G. L. (1978) Epidemiology of mental disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 705–712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, M. M., Gershon, E. S., Kidd, K. K., Prusoff, B. A., Leckman, J. F., Dibble, E., Hamovit, J., Thompson, W. D., Pauls, D. L. & Guroff, J. J. (1984a) Psychiatric disorder in relatives of probands with affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 13–21.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Leckman, J. F., Merikangas, K. R., Gammon, G. D. & Prusoff, B. A. (1984b) Depression and anxiety disorders in parents and children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 845–851.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Prusoff, B. A., Gammon, G. D., Merikangas, K. R., Leckman, J. F. & Kidd, K. K. (1984c) Psychopathology in the children (aged 6–18) of depressed and normal parents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 78–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Merikangas, K. R., Leckman, J. F., Prusoff, B. A., Karuso, K. A., Kidd, K. K. & Gammon, G. D. (1984d) Onset of major depression in early adulthood: increased familial loading and specificity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 1136–1143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, M. M., John, K., Merikangas, K. R., Prusoff, B. A., Wickramaratne, P., Gammon, G. D., Angold, A. A., Warmer, V. (1986) Depressed parents and their children: general health, social, and psychiatric problems. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 140, 801–805.Google Scholar
Winokur, G., Behar, D., Vanvalkenburg, C. & Lowry, M. (1978) Is a familial definition of depressed both feasible and valid? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 166, 764–768.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1978) Mental Disorders: Glossary and Guide to their Classification in Accordance with the Ninth Revision of the International Classification of Diseases. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., McKnew, D. H., Cummings, M., Davenport, Y. B. & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1984) Problem behaviors and peer interactions of young children with a manic depressive parent. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 236–240.Google ScholarPubMed
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.