Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-04T00:22:43.743Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Longitudinal changes in recalled perceived life threat after a natural disaster

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Trond Heir*
Affiliation:
Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, University of Oslo, Norway
Auran Piatigorsky
Affiliation:
Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, University of Oslo, Norway
Lars Weisæth
Affiliation:
Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, University of Oslo, Norway
*
Trond Heir, Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, Building 48, Kirkeveien 166, N-0407 Oslo, Norway. Email: trond.heir@medisin.uio.no
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.
Background

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis often depends on a retrospective, self-report of exposure to a life-threatening event.

Aims

To examine the stability of recalled perceived life threat in a community sample exposed to a distinct stressful event.

Method

Five hundred and thirty-two Norwegian citizens who experienced the 2004 South-East Asia tsunami completed a self-report questionnaire 6 and 24 months post-disaster. The questionnaire measured perceived life-threat intensity, exposure, immediate stress response, psychopathology, personality dimensions, self-efficacy and social support.

Results

Recalled threat intensity increased from 6 to 24 months (P <0.001). Recall amplification was associated with lack of PTSD symptom improvement (P < 0.05), but not with degree of exposure, immediate stress response, mood or stress symptoms, personality, self-efficacy or social support.

Conclusions

Recall amplification of perceived life threat from a single stressful event occurs in the general population, it may hinder PTSD symptom improvement and it questions the diagnostic validity of PTSD.

Type
Papers
Copyright
Copyright © Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2009 

Footnotes

See editorial, pp. 479–480, this issue.

This study was supported by the Norwegian Directorate of Health and Social Affairs.

Declaration of interest

None.

References

1 World Health Organization. The ICD–10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. WHO, 1992.Google Scholar
2 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (4th edn) (DSM–IV). APA, 1994.Google Scholar
3 Van der Kolk, BA. Trauma and memory. In Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body and Society (eds Van der Kolk, BA, McFarlane, AC & Weisaeth, L): 279302. Guilford Press, 1996.Google Scholar
4 Southwick, SM, Morgan, CA, Nicolaou, AL, Charney, DS. Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of Operation Desert Storm. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 173–7.Google ScholarPubMed
5 Roemer, L, Litz, BT, Orsillo, SM, Ehlich, PJ, Friedman, MJ. Increases in retrospective accounts of war-zone exposure over time: the role of PTSD symptom severity. J Trauma Stress 1998; 11: 597605.Google Scholar
6 Wessely, S, Unwin, C, Hotopf, M, Hull, L, Ismail, K, Nicolaou, V, et al. Stability of recall of military hazards over time. Evidence from the Persian Gulf War of 1991. Br J Psychiatry 2003; 183: 314–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7 Engelhard, IM, van den Hout, MA, McNally, RJ. Memory consistency for traumatic events in Dutch soldiers deployed to Iraq. Memory 2008; 16: 39.Google Scholar
8 Krinsley, KE, Gallagher, JG, Weathers, FW, Kutter, CJ, Kaloupek, DG. Consistency of retrospective reporting about exposure to traumatic events. J Trauma Stress 2003; 16: 399409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9 Frueh, BC, Hamner, MB, Cahill, SP, Gold, PB. Apparent symptom over-reporting in combat veterans evaluated for PTSD. Clin Psychol Rev 2000; 20: 853–85.Google Scholar
10 Hepp, U, Gamma, A, Milos, G, Eich, D, Ajdacic-Gross, V, Rössler, W, et al. Inconsistency in reporting potentially traumatic events. Br J Psychiatry 2006; 188: 278–83.Google Scholar
11 Ouimette, P, Read, J, Brown, PJ. Consistency of retrospective reports of DSM–IV Criterion A traumatic stressors among substance use disorder patients. J Trauma Stress 2005; 18: 4351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12 Porter, S, Peace, KA. The scars of memory. A prospective, longitudinal investigation of the consistency of traumatic and positive emotional memories in adulthood. Psychol Sci 2007; 18: 435–41.Google ScholarPubMed
13 Heir, T, Weisaeth, L. Acute disaster exposure and mental health complaints of Norwegian tsunami survivors 6 months post disaster. Psychiatry 2008; 71: 266–76.Google Scholar
14 Portney, LG, Watkins, MP. Foundations of Clinical Research: Applications to Practice (2nd edn). Prentice Hall Health, 2000.Google Scholar
15 Weiss, DS. The Impact of Event Scale – Revised. In Assessing Psychological Trauma and PTSD (eds Wilson, JP & Keane, TM): 168–89. Guilford Press, 2004.Google Scholar
16 Creamer, M, Bell, R, Failla, S. Psychometric properties of the Impact of Event Scale – Revised. Behav Res Ther 2003; 41: 1489–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17 Goldberg, DP, Hillier, VF. A scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire. Psychol Med 1979; 9: 139–45.Google Scholar
18 Hull, AM, Alexander, DA, Klein, S. Survivors of the Piper Alfa oil platform disaster: long-term follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry 2002; 181: 433–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19 Cao, H, McFarlane, AC, Klimidis, S. Prevalence of psychiatric disorder following the 1988 Yun Nan (China) earthquake: the first 5-month period. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2003; 38: 204–12.Google Scholar
20 Thiis-Evensen, E, Wilhelmsen, I, Hoff, GS, Blomhoff, S, Sauar, J. The psychological effect of attending a screening program for colorectal polyps. Scand J Gastroenterol 1999; 34: 103–9.Google Scholar
21 Skari, H, Skreden, M, Malt, UF, Dalholt, M, Ostensen, AB, Egeland, T, et al. Comparative levels of psychological distress, stress symptoms, depression and anxiety after childbirth: a prospective population-based study of mothers and fathers. BJOG 2002; 109: 1154–63.Google Scholar
22 John, OP, Donahue, EM. The Big Five Inventory: Construction and Validation. Institute of Personality and Social Research, 1998.Google Scholar
23 Schwarzer, R, Jerusalem, M. Generalized self-efficacy scale. In Measures in Health Psychology: A User's Portfolio. Causal and Control Beliefs (eds Weinman, J, Wright, S & Johnston, M): 35–7. nfer-Nelson, 1995.Google Scholar
24 Joseph, S, Andrews, B, Williams, R, Yule, W. Crisis support and psychiatric symptomatology in adult survivors of the Jupiter cruise ship disaster. Br J Clin Psychol 1992; 31: 6373.Google Scholar
25 Andrews, B, Brewin, CR, Rose, S. Gender, social support, and PTSD in victims of violent crime. J Trauma Stress 2003; 16: 421–7.Google Scholar
26 Brugha, T, Bebbington, P, Tennant, C, Hurry, J. The list of threatening experiences: a subset of 12 life events categories with considerable long term contextual threat. Psychol Med 1985; 15: 189–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27 McHugh, PR, Treisman, G. PTSD: a problematic diagnostic category. J Anxiety Disord 2007; 21: 211–22.Google Scholar
28 King, DW, King, LA, Erickson, DJ, Huang, MT, Sharkansky, EJ, Wolfe, J. Posttraumatic stress disorder and retrospectively reported stressor exposure: a longitudinal prediction model. J Abnorm Psychol 2000; 109: 624–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29 Colombel, F. [Memory bias and depression: a critical commentary]. Encephale 2007; 33: 242–8.Google ScholarPubMed
30 Stickgold, R, Walker, MP. Sleep and memory: the ongoing debate. Sleep 2005; 28: 1225–7.Google Scholar
31 Moore, SA, Zoellner, LA. Overgeneral autobiographical memory and traumatic events: an evaluative review. Psychol Bull 2007; 133: 419–37.Google Scholar
32 Kleim, B, Ehlers, A. Reduced autobiographical memory specificity predicts depression and posttraumatic stress disorder after recent trauma. J Consult Clin Psychol 2008; 76: 231–42.Google Scholar
33 Hjemdal, OK. The Regular Practitioners Follow-up of the Tsunami Exposed Individuals (Report no. 1/2007). [Report in Norwegian, English summary.] Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, 2007.Google Scholar
34 O'Donnell, ML, Elliott, P, Wolfgang, BJ, Creamer, M. Posttraumatic appraisals in the development and persistence of posttraumatic stress symptoms. J Traumatic Stress 2007; 20: 173–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35 Spitzer, RL, First, MB, Wakefield, JC. Saving PTSD from itself in DSM–V. J Anxiety Disord 2007; 21: 233–41.Google Scholar
36 Bradley, R, Greene, J, Russ, E, Dutra, L, Westen, D. A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 214–27.Google Scholar
37 Heir, T, Weisaeth, L. Back to where it happened: self-reported symptom improvement of tsunami survivors who returned to the disaster area. Prehospital Disaster Med 2006; 21: 5963.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.