Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-2xdlg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-18T07:57:02.615Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Cognitive behavioural therapy for occupational trauma: a systematic literature review exploring the effects of occupational trauma and the existing CBT support pathways and interventions for staff working within mental healthcare including allied professions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2012

Judith Graham*
Affiliation:
Cognitive Behavioural Psychotherapist, Lincolnshire, UK
*
*Address for correspondence: Ms. J. Graham, Cognitive Behavioural Psychotherapist & Specialist Nurse Practitioner (email: judith.graham@rdash.nhs.uk)

Abstract

This study performed a systematic literature review to examine existing and recommended CBT support for staff working within mental healthcare, who experienced occupational traumatization. The following questions were posed: (1) What are the effects of differing levels of occupational trauma on the individual and/or organization? (2) Are there any current CBT-specific models, or treatment pathways, aimed at supporting those experiencing the effects of occupational trauma? Conclusions showed the effects of occupational trauma are significant, varied and predominantly negative to both employees, and the organizations where they work. There were no CBT-specific models or pathways sourced to address occupational trauma; however, interventions were highlighted which may form parts of a larger pathway. Reviewed evidence suggests that development of a stepped CBT pathway for occupational trauma will be beneficial.

Type
Review
Copyright
Copyright © British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexandrescu, R, O'Brien, S, Lynons, R, Lecky, F 2008. A proposed approach in defining population-based rates of major injury from a trauma registry dataset: delineation of hospital catchment areas (I) (http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/8/80). Accessed 2 July 2011).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Humaid, H, el-Guebaly, N, Lussier, D 2007. Substance use and the police – an international workplace experience. Addictive Disorders and Their Treatment 6, 107115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anon. 2007. The impact that changed my life. Professional Psychology – Research & Practice 38, 561570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BABCP 2011. Full accreditation (http://www.babcp.com/members-/full-accreditation/). British Association of Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies. Accessed 15 April 2011.Google Scholar
Baird, S, Jenkins, S 2003. Vicarious traumatization, secondary traumatic stress, and burnout in sexual assault and domestic violence agency staff. Violence & Victims 18, 7186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bamber, M 2007. CBT for Occupational Stress in Healthcare Professionals. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Baranowsky, A, Young, M, Johnson-Douglas, S, Williams-Keeler, L, McCarrey, M 1998. PTSD transmission: a review of secondary traumatization in holocaust survivor families. Canadian Psychology 39, 247256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, C, Pistrang, N, Elliot, R 1994. Philosophical, professional and personal issues. In: Research Methods in Clinical and Counselling Psychology (ed. Barker, C., Pistrang, N. and Elliot, R.), pp. 729. Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Barnard, P, Teasdale, J 1991. Interacting cognitive subsystems: a systemic approach to cognitive-affective interaction and change. Cognition and Emotion 5, 139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, J, Baker, E, Elman, N, Schoener, G 2007 a. In pursuit of wellness: the self-care imperative. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 38, 603612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, J, Cornish, J, Goodyear, R, Lichtenberg, J 2007 b. Commentaries on the ethical and effective practice of clinical supervision. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 38, 268275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, J, Wise, E, Johnson-Greene, D, Bucky, S 2007 c. Informed consent: too much of a good thing or not enough? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 38, 179186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bar-on, D 1998. The Indescribable and the Undiscussable: Reconstructing Human Discourse After Trauma. Hungary: Central European University Press.Google Scholar
Baum, N 2010. Shared traumatic reality in communal disasters: toward a conceptualisation. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 47, 249259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ben-Porat, A, Itzhaky, H 2009. Implications of treating family violence for the therapist: secondary traumatization, vicarious traumatization, and growth. Journal of Family Violence 24, 507515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennet-Levy, J, Thwaites, R 2008. Self and self reflection in the therapeutic relationship. In: The Therapeutic Relationship in Cognitive Behavioural Psychotherapies (ed. Gilbert, P. and Leahy, R.), pp. 255281. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Benton, D, Cormack, D 2004. Reviewing and evaluating the literature. In: The Research Process of Nursing, 4th edn (ed. Cormack, D.), pp. 106107. Oxford: Blackwell Science.Google Scholar
Berceli, D, Napoli, M 2006. A proposal for a mindfulness-based trauma prevention program for social work professionals. Complementary Health Practice Review 11, 153165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, D, Newman, M, Harris-Hendriks, J, Mezey, G 1997. Psychological Trauma: A Developmental Approach. USA: Gaskell.Google Scholar
Blore, D 2011. Occupational psychological trauma service (http://www.davidblore.co.uk/occupational-psychological-trauma-service.php). Accessed 2 July 2011).Google Scholar
Blore, D, Holmshaw, M 2009. EMDR ‘Blind to Therapist Protocol’. In: Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: EMDR Scripted Protocols Basic and Special Situations (ed. Luber, M.), pp. 233–40. New York: Springer Publishing.Google Scholar
BMA 2011. Developing doctors' non-clinical skills – a signposting resource (http://www.bma.org.uk/careers/developing_your_career/doctorsnonclinicalskills.jsp?page=3). British Medical Association. Accessed 15 June 2011.Google Scholar
Bolton, E, Lambert, J, Wolf, E, Raja, S, Varra, A, Fisher, L 2004. Evaluating a cognitive–behavioral group treatment program for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Services 1, 140146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowling, A 1997. Questionnaire design. In: Research Methods in Health (ed. Bowling, A.), pp. 242270. Buckingham: Open University Press.Google Scholar
BPS 2009. Code of Ethics and Conduct. Leicester: The British Psychological Society.Google Scholar
Brewin, C 2003. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Malady or Myth. London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
BUPA 2011. Careers with Bupa home healthcare (http://www.bupa.co.uk/healthcare-providers/home-healthcare/bhh-careers). Accessed 15 June 2011.Google Scholar
Clark, M, Gioro, S 1998. Nurses, indirect trauma, and prevention. Image – the Journal of Nursing Scholarship 30, 8587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, S, Long, A 2003. Too tired to care? The psychological effects of working with trauma. Journal of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing 10, 1727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, K 2003. Feeling the pressure. Nursing Standard 17, 1314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courtois, C, Gold, S 2009. The need for inclusion of psychological trauma in the professional curriculum: a call to action. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 1, 323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cousins, R, Mackay, C, Clarke, S, Kelly, C, Kelly, P, Mccaig, R 2004. ‘Management Standards’ work-related stress in the UK: Practical development. Work & Stress 18, 113136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CQC 2008. Essential Standards of Quality and Safety. London: Care Quality Commission.Google Scholar
CQC 2011 a. NHS surveys (http://www.nhssurveys.org/publications). Care Quality Commission. Accessed 10 April 2011.Google Scholar
CQC 2011 b. NHS staff survey 2010 (http://www.cqc.org.uk/aboutcqc/howwedoit/engagingwithproviders/nhsstaffsurveys/staffsurvey2010.cfm). Care Quality Commission. Accessed 10 April 2011.Google Scholar
Cronin, C 2001. How do nurses deal with their emotions on a burn unit? Hermeneutic inquiry. International Journal of Nursing Practice 7, 342348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, M 1999. The impact of sexual abuse treatment on the social work clinician. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal 16, 277290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cygnets 2011. A career with Cygnet Health (http://www.cygnethealth.co.uk/careers/index.html). Accessed 15 June 2011.Google Scholar
Damasio, A 2006. Descartes’ Error. London: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Dalgleish, T 2004. Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder: the evolution of multirepresentational theorizing. Psychological Bulletin 130, 228260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Vente, W, Kamphuis, H, Emmelkamp, P 2008. Individual and group cognitive-behavioral treatment for work-related stress complaints and sickness absence: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 13, 214231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Vente, W, Kamphuis, J, Emmelkamp, P 2006. Alexithymia, risk factor or consequence of work-related stress? Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics 75, 304311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devilly, G, Gist, R, Cotton, P 2006. Ready! Aim! Fire! The status of psychological debriefing and therapeutic interventions: in the workplace after disasters. Review of General Psychology 10, 318345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Zulueta, F 2006. The treatment of psychological trauma from the perspective of attachment research. Journal of Family Therapy 28, 334351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DoH 2004 a. The Knowledge and Skills Framework. London: Department of Health.Google Scholar
DoH 2004 b. The Ten Essential Shared Capabilities. London: Department of Health.Google Scholar
DoH 2006. From Values to Action: the Chief Nursing Officers Review of Mental Health Nursing. London: Department of Health.Google Scholar
DoH 2007. Mental Health: New Ways of Working for Everyone. London: Department of Health.Google Scholar
Dollard, M, LaMontagne, A, Caulfield, N, Blewett, V, Shaw, A 2007. Job stress in the Australian and International Health and Community Services Sector: a review of the literature. International Journal of Stress Management 14, 417445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eidelson, R, D'Alessio, G, Eidelson, J 2003. The impact of September 11 on psychologists. Professional Psychology - Research & Practice 34, 144150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elhers, A, Clark, D 2000. A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavioural Research Therapy 38, 319345.Google Scholar
Ellis, M 2006. Critical incidents in clinical supervision and in supervisor supervision: assessing supervisory issues. Training and Education in Professional Psychology 5, 122132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferris, P 2009. The role of the consulting psychologist in the prevention, detection, and correction of bullying and mobbing in the workplace. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 61, 169189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flaxman, P, Bond, F 2010. Worksite stress management training: moderated effects and clinical significance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 15, 347358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friborg, O, Hjemdal, O, Martinussen, M, Rosenvinge, J 2009. Empirical support for resilience as more than the counterpart and absence of vulnerability and symptoms of mental disorder. Journal of Individual Differences 30, 138151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Girden, E 2001. Evaluating Research Articles. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Glouberman, D 2007. The Joy of Burnout: How the End of the World Can Be a New Beginning. USA: Skyros Books.Google Scholar
Gray, D 2004. Theoretical perspectives and research methodologies. In: Doing Research in the Real World (ed. Gray, D.), pp. 1534. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Greenberg, N, Henderson, M, Karim, S, Holland-Elliott, K 2005. Does having an occupational mental health service make any difference? Occupational Medicine 55, 549551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grime, P 2004. Computerized cognitive behavioural therapy at work: a randomized controlled trial in employees with recent stress-related absenteeism. Occupational Medicine 54, 353359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hampshire Police 2007. Procedure: trauma support (http://www.hampshire.police.uk/NR/rdonlyres/9E41EEC9-E532–469A-8E39–77F853B6614C/0/24403.pdf). Accessed 10 April 2011.Google Scholar
Harkness, K, Bruce, A, Lumley, M 2006. The role of childhood abuse and neglect in the sensitization to stressful life events in adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 115, 730741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, R, Westwood, M 2009. Preventing vicarious traumatization of mental health therapists: identifying protective practices. Psychotherapy Theory, Research, Practice, Training 46, 203219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartman, C 1995. The nurse-patient relationship and victims of violence. Research & Theory for Nursing Practice 9, 175192.Google ScholarPubMed
Hecht, T, Boies, K 2009. Structure and correlates of spillover from nonwork to work: an examination of nonwork activities, well-being, and work outcomes. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 14, 414426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HSE 1974. The Health and Safety at Work Act. Health and Safety Executive. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
HSE 1992. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations. Health and Safety Executive. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
HSE 1995. Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR). Health and Safety Executive. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
HSE 2004. Making the Stress Management Standards Work. How to Apply the Standards in your Workplace. Health and Safety Executive. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
HSE 2011 Guidance (http://www.hse.gov.uk/guidance/index.htm). Health and Safety Executive. Accessed 2 July 2011.Google Scholar
Jacob, C, Veach, P 2005. Intrapersonal and familial effects of child sexual abuse on female partners of male survivors. Journal of Counseling Psychology 52, 284297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, N, Roberts, P, Greenberg, N 2003. Peer-group risk assessment: a post-traumatic management strategy for hierarchical organizations. Occupational Medicine 53, 469475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaminski, M 2001. Unintended consequences – organisational practice and their impact upon workplace safety and productivity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 6, 127138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaslow, N, Rubin, N, Forrest, L, Elman, N, Van Horne, B, Jacobs, S, Huprich, S, Benton, S, Pantesco, V, Dollinger, S, Grus, C, Behnke, S, Shen Miller, D, Shealy, C, Mintz, L, Schwartz-Mette, R, Van Sickle, K, Thorn, B 2007. Recognizing, assessing, and intervening with problems of professional competence. Professional Psychology - Research & Practice 38, 479492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, L, Snetter, M, Robinson, A, Hewitt, P, Cojucar, G 2008. Holographic reprocessing: Empirical evidence to reduce posttraumatic cognitions in women veterans with PTSD from sexual trauma and abuse. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 45, 186198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kazdin, A 1982. Introduction to single case research and ABAB designs. In: Single-Case Research Designs: Methods for Clinical and Applied Settings (ed. Kazdin, A.), pp. 103125. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kearney, M, Weininger, R, Vachon, M, Harrison, R, Mount, B 2009. Self-care of physicians caring for patients at the end of life: ‘being connected . . . a key to my survival’. Journal of the American Medical Association 301, 11551164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinzel, A, Nanson, J 2000. Education and debriefing: strategies for preventing crises in crisis-line volunteers. Crisis: Journal of Crisis Intervention & Suicide 21, 126134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraus, J, McArthur, D 2006. Epidemiology of brain injury. In: Neurology and Trauma (ed. Evans, R.), pp. 318. USA: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krieger, N, Kaddour, A, Koenen, K, Kosheleva, A, Chen, J, Waterman, P, Barbeau, E 2011. Occupational, social, and relationship hazards and psychological distress among low-income workers: implications of the ‘inverse hazard law’. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 65, 260272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, J, Bliese, P, Lang, J, Adler, A 2011, Work gets unfair for the depressed: cross-lagged relations between organizational justice perceptions and depressive symptoms. Journal of Applied Psychology. doi: 10.1037/a0022463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langman, L 2006. The Evolution of Alienation. USA: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Largo-Marsh, L, Spates, C 2002. The effects of writing therapy in comparison to EMD/R on traumatic stress: the relationship between hypnotizability and client expectancy to outcome. Professional Psychology - Research & Practice 33, 581586.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leahy, R 2008. Schematic mismatch in the therapeutic relationship. In: The Therapeutic Relationship in Cognitive Behavioural Psychotherapies (ed. Gilbert, P. and Leahy, R.), pp. 229254. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Linton, J 1995. Acute stress management with public safety personnel: opportunities for clinical training and pro bono community service. Professional Psychology - Research & Practice 26, 566573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, A 2002. Critically appraising research studies. In: Evidence-Informed Nursing: A Guide for Clinical Nurses (ed. McSherry, R., Simmons, M. and Abbott, P.), pp. 4164. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
McFarlane, A, Bryant, R 2007. Post-traumatic stress disorder in occupational settings: anticipating and managing the risk. Occupational Medicine (Oxford) 57, 404410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKinnon, B, Cross, W 2008. Occupational violence and assault in mental health nursing: A scoping project for a Victorian Mental Health Service. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 17, 917.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLeod, J 2001. Introduction: critical issues in the methodology of qualitative research. Counselling and psychotherapy research 1, 115117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, L 1998. Our own medicine: traumatized psychotherapists and the stresses of doing psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 35, 137146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moeller, S 1999. Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War and Death. UK: Taylor & Francis Ltd.Google Scholar
Murphy, L 1996. Stress management in work settings: a critical review. American Journal of Health Promotion 11, 112135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NICE 2004. Depression: the treatment and management of depression in adults. London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence.Google Scholar
NICE 2005. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): NICE guideline. London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence.Google Scholar
NICE 2009. Depression: the treatment and management of depression in adults (update). London: National Institute for Health and Clinical ExcellenceGoogle Scholar
National Patient Safety Agency 2008. Do I need ethics approval? (http://www.nres.npsa.nhs.uk/applications/help/faq/do-i-need-ethical-approval/). Accessed 15 April 2011.Google Scholar
Nelson-Goff, B, Reisbig, A, Bole, A, Scheer, T, Everett Hayes, M, Archuleta, K, Henry, S, Hoheisel, C, Nye, B, Osby, J, Sanders-Hahs, E, Schwerdtfeger, K, Smith, D 2009. The effects of trauma on intimate relationships: a qualitative study with clinical couples. Journal of Counselling Psychology 76, 451460.Google Scholar
Neumann, D, Gamble, S 1995. Issues in the professional development of psychotherapists: countertransference and vicarious traumatization in the new trauma therapist. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 32, 341347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NMC 2008. Clinical supervision for registered nurses (http://www.nmc-uk.org/Nurses-and-midwives/Advice-by-topic/A/Advice/Clinical-supervision-for-registered-nurses/). Nursing and Midwifery Council. Accessed 15 June 2011.Google Scholar
Osofsky, J 2008. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina: a personal story of a psychologist from New Orleans. Professional Psychology – Research & Practice 39, 1217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pagani, M, Hogberg, G, Salmaso, D, Nardo, D, Sundin, O, Jonsson, C, Soares, J, Aberg-Wistedt, A, Jacobsson, H, Larsson, S, Hallstrom, T 2007. Effects of EMDR psychotherapy on 99mTc-HMPAO distribution in occupation-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Nuclear Medicine Communications 28, 757765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parks, K, Steelman, L 2008. Organizational wellness programs: a meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 13, 5868.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearlman, L, Saakvitne, K 1995. Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy with Incest Survivors. USA: WW Norton & Co.Google Scholar
Phoenix, B 2007. Psycho-education for survivors of trauma. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care 43, 123131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ploeg, E, Dorresteijn, S, Kleber, R 2003. Critical incidents and chronic stressors at work: their impact on forensic doctors. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 8, 157166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plotnikoff, R, Karunamuni, N 2011. Steps towards permanently increasing physical activity in the population. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 24, 162167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Power, M, Dalgleish, T 2003. Cognition and Emotion: From Order to Disorder. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Punch, K 2009. Developing Effective Research Proposals, 2nd edn.London: Sage Publishing.Google Scholar
Pyevich, C, Newman, E, Daleiden, E 2003. The relationship among cognitive schemas, job-related traumatic exposure, and posttraumatic stress disorder in journalists. Journal of Traumatic Stress 16, 325328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rantanen, M, Mauno, S, Kinnunen, U, Rantanen, U 2011. Do individual coping strategies help or harm in the work–family conflict situation? Examining coping as a moderator between work–family conflict and well-being. International Journal of Stress Management 18, 2448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Red Poppy Company 2011. Managing trauma and stress – your legal requirements (http://www.theredpoppycompany.co.uk/legal.htm). Accessed 2 July 2011.Google Scholar
Regehr, C 2001. Crisis debriefing groups for emergency responders: reviewing the evidence. Brief Treatment & Crisis Intervention 1, 87100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, K, Rothstein, H 2008. Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: a meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational Psychology 13, 6993.Google ScholarPubMed
Rifkin, J 2010. The Empathic Civilisation. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Riggs, S, Adams, S 2008. An exploratory study of vicarious trauma among therapist trainees. Training and Education in Professional Psychology 2, 2634.Google Scholar
Robins, P, Meltzer, L, Zelikovsky, N 2009. The experience of secondary traumatic stress upon care providers working within a children's hospital. Journal of Pediatric Nursing 24, 270279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, M, Humphreys, R 2004. Psychological treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: recommendations for the clinician based on a review of the literature. Journal of Psychiatric Practice 10, 106118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothschild, B 2000. The Body Remembers. UK: WW Norton and Co. Ltd.Google Scholar
Rubino, C, Luksyte, A, Jansen, S, Volpone, S 2009. How do stressors lead to burnout? the mediating role of motivation. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 14, 289304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruysschaert, N 2009. (Self) Hypnosis in the prevention of burnout and compassion fatigue for caregivers: theory and induction. Contemporary Hypnosis 26, 159172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saakvitne, K, Pearlman, L 1995. Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy with Incest Survivors. USA: WW Norton and Co.Google Scholar
Saunders, T, Driskell, J, Johnson, J, Salas, E 1996. The effect of stress inoculation training on anxiety and performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 1, 170186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scanlan, C 2006. Strategies to promote a climate of academic integrity and minimize student cheating and plagiarism. Journal of Allied Health 35, 179185.Google ScholarPubMed
Searle, B 2008. Does personal initiative training work as a stress management intervention? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 13, 259270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seedhouse, D 1988. Theories of ethics. In: Ethics: The Heart of Healthcare (ed. Seedhouse, D.), pp. 90112. London: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.Google Scholar
Shubs, C 2008. Countertransference issues in the assessment and treatment of trauma recovery with victims of violent crime. Psychoanalytic Psychology 25, 156180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, D 1993. Horrific Traumata: Pastoral Response to the Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. USA: Taylor & Francis Inc.Google Scholar
Slattery, J, Park, C 2007. Developing as a therapist: stress-related growth through parenting a child in crisis. Professional Psychology - Research & Practice 38, 554560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stalker, C, Mandell, D, Frensch, K, Harvey, C, Wright, M 2007. Child welfare workers who are exhausted yet satisfied with their jobs: how do they do it? Child & Family Social Work 12, 182191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stamm, H 1999. Secondary Traumatic Stress. USA: Sidran Press.Google Scholar
Steinberg, J 2002. The management of the human impact of a large-scale community disaster: a perspective on the world trade centre terrorist attack. Brief Treatment & Crisis Intervention 2, 173181CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tjeltveit, A 1999. The spectrum of ethical theories in psychotherapy. In: Ethics and Values in Psychotherapy (ed. Tjeltveit, A.), pp. 5182. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomczyk, D, Alvarez, D, Borgman, P, Cartier, M, Caulum, L, Galloway, C, Groves, C, Faust, N 2008. Caring for those who care the role of the occupational health nurse in disasters. AAOHN Journal 56, 243250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Townsend, S, Campbell, R 2009. Organizational correlates of secondary traumatic stress and burnout among sexual assault nurse examiners. Journal of Forensic Nursing 5, 97106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrrell, Z 2010. A cognitive behavioural model for maintaining processes in burnout. The Cognitive Behavioural Therapist 3, 1826.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UKCP 2011. Overview of ethics in psychotherapy supervision (http://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/ethics_and_supervision.html). United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy. Accessed 30 January 2011.Google Scholar
Walsh, B, Clarke, E 2003. Post-trauma symptoms in health workers following physical and verbal aggression. Work & Stress 17, 170181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, J 2005. Work stress as a risk factor for major depressive episode(s). Psychological Medicine 35, 865871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warren, T, Lee, S, Saunders, S 2003. Factors influencing experienced distress and attitude toward trauma by emergency medicine practitioners. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings 10, 293296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wasco, S, Campbell, R 2002. Emotional reactions of rape victim advocates: a multiple case study of anger and fear. Psychology of Women Quarterly 26, 120130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watt, G 2008. The Mental Capacity Act and benevolent deception under the guise of ‘best interests’. Learning Disability Practice 11, 4245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welsh, D, Dickson, J 2005. Video-recall procedures for examining subjective understanding in observational data. Journal of Family Psychology. 19, 6271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wenzel, T 2002. Forensic evaluation of sequels to torture. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 15, 611615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whinghter, J, Cunningham, C, Wang, M, Burnfield, J 2008. The moderating role of goal orientation in the workload–frustration relationship. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 13, 283291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, D 2006. The hidden costs of caring: what managers need to know. Health Care Manager. 25, 341347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WHO 1992. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders. Switzerland: World Health Organisation.Google Scholar
Wilson, J, Thomas, R 2004. Empathy and the Treatment of Trauma and PTSD. UK: Taylor and Francis Ltd.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolhuter, L, Olley, N, Denham, D 2008. Victimology: Victimisation and Victims’ Rights. UK: Routledge-Cavendish.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wyatt, G, Sanders, P 2002. Contact and Perception. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.Google Scholar
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.