Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-jtdwj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-30T18:22:26.989Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Appropriation and Subversion

Precommunist Literacy, Communist Party Saturation, and Postcommunist Democratic Outcomes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 February 2016

Tomila V. Lankina ,
Alexander Libman  and
Anastassia Obydenkova

Extract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Twenty-five years after the collapse of communism in Europe, few scholars disagree that the past continues to shape the democratic trajectories of postcommunist states. Precommunist education has featured prominently in this literature’s bundle of “good” legacies because it ostensibly helped foster resistance to communism. The authors propose a differentcausal mechanism—appropriation and subversion—that challenges the linearity of the above assumptions by analyzing the effects of precommunist literacy on patterns of Communist Party recruitment in Russia’s regions. Rather than regarding precommunist education as a source of latent resistance to communism, the authorshighlight the Leninist regime’s successful appropriation of the more literate strata of the precommunist orders, in the process subverting the past democratic edge of the hitherto comparatively more developed areas. The linear regression analysis of author—assembled statistics from the first Russian imperial census of 1897 supports prior research: precommunist literacy has a strong positive association with postcommunist democratic outcomes. Nevertheless, in pursuing causal mediation analysis, the authors find, in addition, that the above effect is mediated by Communist Party saturation in Russia’s regions. Party functionaries were likely to be drawn from areas that had been comparatively more literate in tsarist times, andparty saturation in turn had a dampening effect on the otherwise positive effects of precommunist education on postcommunist democracy.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
World Politics , Volume 68 , Issue 2 , April 2016 , pp. 229 - 274
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 2016 

References

Acemoğlu, Daron, Johnson, Simon, and Robinson, James A.. 2002. “Reversal of Fortune: Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 117, no. 4 (November): 1231– 94.Google Scholar
Almond, Gabriel A., and Verba, Sidney. 1963. The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Bahry, Donna, Boaz, Cynthia, and Gordon, Stacy B.. 1997. “Tolerance, Transition, and Support for Civil Liberties in Russia.” Comparative Political Studies 30, no. 4 (August): 484–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bahry, Donna, and Silver, Brian D.. 1990. “Soviet Citizen Participation on the Eve of Democratization.” American Political Science Review 84, no. 3 (September): 821–47.Google Scholar
Balzer, Harley D. 1996. Russia’s Missing Middle Class: The Professions in Russian History. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe.Google Scholar
Baron, Reuben M., and Kenny, David A.. 1986. “The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51, no. 6 (December): 1173–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, Edward J., Frick, Joachim R., and Wagner, Gert G.. 1998. “The Income of Socialist Upper Classes during the Transition to Capitalism: Evidence from Longitudinal East German Data.” Journal of Comparative Economics 26, no. 2 (June): 221–25.Google Scholar
Bobrovitskaya, Darya 2008. “Stareyshaya v Ivanove, odna iz luchshikh v Rossii.” Ivanovskaya gazeta, January 29. At http://dlib.eastview.com/browse/doc/13402045, accessed April 27, 2015.Google Scholar
Bollen, Kenneth. 1993. “Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures.” American Journal of Political Science 37, no. 4 (November): 1207– 30.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre, and Passeron, Jean-Claude. 1990. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture, 2nd ed., trans. Nice, Richard. London, UK: Sage.Google Scholar
Breen, Richard, and Jonsson, Jan O.. 2005. “Inequality of Opportunity in Comparative Perspective: Recent Research on Educational Attainment and Social Mobility.” Annual Review of Sociology 31, no. 1 (August): 223–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, Jeffrey. 1985. When Russia Learned to Read. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Archie. 2005. “Conclusions.” In Whitefield, Stephen, ed., Political Culture and Post-Communism. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Bunce, Valerie. 2005. “The National Idea: Imperial Legacies and Post-Communist Pathways in Eastern Europe.” East European Politics and Societies 19, no. 3 (Summer): 406–42.Google Scholar
Capoccia, Giovanni, and Daniel Kelemen, R.. 2007. “The Study of Critical Junctures: Theory, Narrative, and Counterfactuals in Historical Institutionalism.” World Politics 59, no. 3 (April): 341–69.Google Scholar
Dalton, Russell J. 1994. “Communists and Democrats: Democratic Attitudes in the Two Germanies.” British Journal of Political Science 24, no. 4 (October): 469–93.Google Scholar
Darden, Keith, and Grzymala-Busse, Anna. 2006. “The Great Divide: Literacy, Nationalism, and the Communist Collapse.” World Politics 59, no. 1 (October): 83–115.Google Scholar
Derluguian, Georgi M. 2005. Bourdieu’s Secret Admirer in the Caucasus: A World-System Biography. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
De Witt, Nicholas. 1961. Education and Professional Employment in the USSR. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation.Google Scholar
Djilas, Milovan. 1983. The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System. San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Easter, Gerald. 2000. Reconstructing the State: Personal Networks and Elite Identity in Soviet Russia. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ekiert, Grzegorz, and Hanson, Stephen E.. 2003. “Time, Space, and Institutional Change in Central and Eastern Europe.” In Ekiert, Grzegorz and Hanson, Stephen E., eds., Capitalism and Democracy in Central and Eastern Europe: Assessing the Legacy of Communist Rule. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ekiert, Grzegorz, and Daniel, Ziblatt. 2013. “Democracy in Central and Eastern Europe One Hundred Years On.” East European Politics and Societies and Cultures 27, no. 1 (February): 90–107.Google Scholar
Eklof, Ben. 1986. Russian Peasant Schools: Officialdom, Village Culture, and Popular Pedagogy, 1861–1914. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Elster, Jon, Offe, Claus, and Preuss, Ulrich K.. 1998. Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Evans, Geoffrey, and Whitefield, Stephen. 1993. “Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe.” British Journal of Political Science 23, no. 4 (October): 521–48.Google Scholar
Fainsod, Merle. 1970. How Russia Is Ruled: Revised Edition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Finifter, Ada W., and Mickiewicz, Ellen. 1992. “Redefining the Political System of the USSR: Mass Support for Political Change.” American Political Science Review 86, no. 4 (December): 857–74.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 1979. Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921– 1934. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 1993. “Ascribing Class: The Construction of Social Identity in Soviet Russia.” Journal of Modern History 65, no. 4 (December): 745–70.Google Scholar
Fuchs, Roland J., and Demko, George J.. 1977. “Spatial Population Policies in the Socialist Countries of Eastern Europe.” Social Science Quarterly 58, no. 1 (June): 60–73.Google Scholar
Furman, Dmitry. 1999. “Centers and Peripheries: The Political System of the Three East Slavic Republics.” Russian Politics and Law 37, no. 2: 16–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geishecker, Ingo, and Haisken-DeNew, John P.. 2004. “Landing on All Fours? Communist Elites in Post-Soviet Russia.” Journal of Comparative Economics 32, no. 4 (December): 700–719.Google Scholar
Gel’man, Vladimir. 1999. “Regime Transition, Uncertainty and Prospects for Democratisation: The Politics of Russia’s Regions in a Comparative Perspective.” Europe-Asia Studies 51, no. 6 (September): 939–56.Google Scholar
Gel’man, Vladimir, Ryzhenkov, Sergei, Brie, Michael, Avdonin, Vladimir, Ovchinnikov, Boris, and Semenov, Igor. 2003. Making and Breaking Democratic Transitions: The Comparative Politics of Russia’s Regions. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
Gerber, Theodore P. 2000a. “Membership Benefits or Selection Effects? Why Former Communist Party Members Do Better in Post-Soviet Russia.” Social Science Research 29, no. 1 (March): 25–50.Google Scholar
Gerber, Theodore P. 2000b. “Market, State, or Don’t Know? Education, Economic Ideology, and Voting in Contemporary Russia.” Social Forces 79, no. 2 (December): 477–521.Google Scholar
Gerber, Theodore P.. 2003. “Loosening Links? School-to-Work Transitions and Institutional Change in Russia since 1970.” Social Forces 82, no. 1 (September): 241–76.Google Scholar
Gibson, James L., Duch, Raymond M., and Tedin, Kent L.. 1992. “Democratic Values and the Transformation of the Soviet Union.” Journal of Politics 54, no. 2 (May): 329–71.Google Scholar
Graham, Loren R. 1967. The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927–1932. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gruzdev, A. A., ed. 2011. Istoriya kraya Ivanovo: Proshloe i nastoyashcee [History of Ivanovo: Past and Present]. Ivanovo, Russia: Ivanovskaya GSkhA imeni akademika Belyaeva.Google Scholar
Grzymala-Busse, Anna. 2002. Redeeming the Communist Past: The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
H., H. 1966. “Education and Social Mobility in the USSR.” Soviet Studies 18, no. 1 (July): 57–65.Google Scholar
Hahn, Jeffrey W. 1991. “Continuity and Change in Russian Political Culture.” British Journal of Political Science 21, no. 4 (October): 393–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haimson, Leopold H. 1988. “The Problem of Social Identities in Early Twentieth Century Russia.” Slavic Review 47, no. 1 (March): 1–20.Google Scholar
Hale, Henry. 2007. “Correlates of Clientelism: Political Economy, Politicized Ethnicity and Post-Communist Transition.” In Kitschelt, H. and Wilkinson, S. I., eds., Patrons, Clients and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hale, Henry. 2015. Patronal Politics: Eurasian Regime Dynamics in Comparative Perspective. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hanley, Eric. 1999. “Cadre Capitalism in Hungary and Poland: Property Accumulation among Communist-Era Elites.” East European Politics and Societies 14, no. 1 (December): 143–78.Google Scholar
Hanley, Eric, Yershova, Natasha, and Anderson, Richard. 1995. “Russia: Old Wine in a New Bottle? The Circulation and Reproduction of Russian Elites, 1983– 1993.” Theory and Society 24, no. 5 (October): 639–68.Google Scholar
Hanson, Stephen E. 1995. “The Leninist Legacy and Institutional Change.” Comparative Political Studies 28, no. 2 (July): 306–14.Google Scholar
Harris, David A. 1986. “Reasons for CPSU Membership: Insights from Interviews with Emigrants.” Soviet Jewish Affairs 16, no. 1: 21–33.Google Scholar
Hicks, Norman, and Streeten, Paul. 1979. “Indicators of Development: The Search for a Basic Needs Yardstick.” World Development 7, no. 6 (June): 567–80.Google Scholar
Hicks, Raymond, and Tingley, Dustin. 2011. “Causal Mediation Analysis.” Stata Journal 11, no. 4: 605–19.Google Scholar
ICSID (International Center for the Study of Institutions and Development). 2014. “The Biographies of Russian Governors.” Database. At http://iims.hse.ru/en/csid/databases, accessed May 1, 2015.Google Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, Keele, Luke, and Tingley, Dustin. 2010. “A General Approach to Causal Mediation Analysis.” Psychological Methods 15, no. 4 (December): 309–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Imai, Kosuke, Keele, Luke, Tingley, Dustin, and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2011. “Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning about Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies.” American Political Science Review 105, no. 4 (November): 765–89.Google Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, Keele, Luke, and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2010. “Identification, Inference and Sensitivity Analysis for Causal Mediation Effects.” Statistical Science 25, no. 1 (February): 51–71.Google Scholar
Inkeles, Alex. 1950. “Social Stratification and Mobility in the Soviet Union: 1940–1950.” American Sociological Review 15, no. 4 (August): 465–79.Google Scholar
Inkeles, Alex. 1983. Exploring Individual Modernity. New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Ivanov, B. Yu., Komzolova, A. A., and Ryakhovskaya, I. S., eds. 2008. Gosudarstvennaya Duma Rossiyskoy imperii, 1906–1917 [State Duma of the Russian Empire]. Moscow, Russia: ROSSPEN.Google Scholar
Janos, Andrew. 1994. “Continuity and Change in Eastern Europe: Strategies of Post-Communist Politics.” East European Politics and Societies 8, no. 1 (Winter): 1–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janos, Andrew. 2000. East Central Europe in the Modern World: The Politics of the Borderlands from Pre- to Post-Communism. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Jones, Ellen, and Grupp, Fred W.. 1984. “Modernisation and Ethnic Equalisation in the USSR.” Soviet Studies 36, no. 2 (April): 159–84.Google Scholar
Jowitt, Ken. 1992. New World Disorder: The Leninist Extinction. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kitschelt, Herbert. 2003. “Accounting for Postcommunist Regime Diversity: What Counts as a Good Cause?” In Ekiert, Grzegorz and Hanson, Stephen E., eds., Capitalism and Democracy in Central and Eastern Europe: Assessing the Legacy of Communist Rule. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kitschelt, Herbert, and Wilkinson, Steven I., eds. 2007. Correlates of Clientelism: Political Economy, Politicized Ethnicity and Post-Communist Transition. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Koch, Fred C. 1977. The Volga Germans in Russia and the Americas, from 1763 to the Present. London, UK: Pennsylvania State University Press.Google Scholar
Kopstein, Jeffrey. 2003. “Review Article: Postcommunist Democracy: Legacies and Outcomes.” Comparative Politics 35, no. 2 (January): 231–50.Google Scholar
Kopstein, Jeffrey S., and Reilly, David A.. 2000. “Geographic Diffusion and the Transformation of the Postcommunist World.” World Politics 53, no. 1 (October): 1–37.Google Scholar
Kotkin, Stephen, and Beissinger, Mark R.. 2014. “The Historical Legacies of Communism: An Empirical Agenda.” In Kotkin, Stephen and Beissinger, Mark R., eds., Historical Legacies of Communism in Russia and Eastern Europe. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kozlova, Larisa. 1997. “Komplektovanie instituta krasnoy professury v 1920-e gody.” Sotsiologicheskiy zhurnal 4: 209–20.Google Scholar
Kryshtanovskaya, Olga, and White, Stephen. 1996. “From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite.” Europe-Asia Studies 48, no. 5 (June): 711–33.Google Scholar
Kuznetsova, Olga A. 2006. Kul’turnyy oblik rossiyskoy provintsial’noy burzhuazii v XIX-nachale XX veka: na materialakh Verkhnego Povolzhya [Cultural Portrait of the Russian Provincial Bourgeoisie in the Nineteenth–Early 20th Century]. Ivanovo, Russia: IGTA.Google Scholar
Lane, David. 1973. “The Impact of Revolution: The Case of Selection of Students for Higher Education in Soviet Russia, 1917–1928.” Sociology 7, no. 2 (May): 241–52.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila V. 2004. Governing the Locals: Local Self-Government and Ethnic Mobilization in Russia. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila V.. 2012. “Unbroken Links? From Imperial Human Capital to Post- Communist Modernisation.” Europe-Asia Studies 64, no. 4 (May): 623–43.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila V.. 2015. “The Dynamics of Regional and National Contentious Politics in Russia: Evidence from a New Dataset.” Problems of Post-Communism 62, no. 1: 26–44.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila V., and Getachew, Lullit. 2006. “A Geographic Incremental Theory of Democratization: Territory, Aid, and Democracy in Postcommunist Regions.” World Politics 58, no. 4 (July): 536–82.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila V., and Getachew, Lullit. 2008. “The Virtuous Circles of Western Exposure in Russian Regions: A Case for Micro-Polity Analysis of Democratic Change.” Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 24, no. 3 (September): 338–64.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila V., and Getachew, Lullit. 2012. “Mission or Empire, Word or Sword? The Human Capital Legacy in Post-Colonial Democratic Development.” American Journal of Political Science 56, no. 2 (April): 465–83.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila V., and Getachew, Lullit. 2013. “Competitive Religious Entrepreneurs: Christian Missionaries and Female Education in Colonial and Post-Colonial India.” British Journal of Political Science 43, no. 1 (January): 103–31.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila V., Libman, Alexander, and Obydenkova, Anastassia. 2015. Supplementary material. At http://dx.doi.org.10.1017/S0043887115000428.Google Scholar
LaPorte, Jody, and Lussier, Danielle N.. 2011. “What Is The Leninist Legacy? Assessing Twenty Years of Scholarship.” Slavic Review 70, no. 3 (October): 637–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leonard, Carol. 2011. Agrarian Reform in Russia: The Road from Serfdom. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lerner, Daniel. 1958. The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
Letki, Natalia. 2004. “Socialization for Participation? Trust, Membership, and Democratization in East-Central Europe.” Political Research Quarterly 57, no. 4 (December): 665–79.Google Scholar
Libman, Alexander, and Obydenkova, Anastassia. 2014. “International Trade as a Limiting Factor in Democratization: An Analysis of Subnational Regions in Post-Communist Russia.” Studies in Comparative International Development 49, no. 2 (June): 168–96.Google Scholar
Libman, Alexander, and Obydenkova, Anastassia. 2015. “CPSU Legacies and Regional Democracy in Contemporary Russia.” Political Studies 63, no. 1 (April): 173–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linz, Juan J. 2000. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Lipset, Seymour M. 1959. “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy.” American Political Science Review 53, no. 1 (March): 69–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipset, Seymour M., and Dobson, Richard B.. 1972. “The Intellectual as Critic and Rebel: With Special Reference to the United States and the Soviet Union.” Daedalus 101, no. 3 (Summer): 137–98.Google Scholar
Lustick, Ian S. 1996. “History, Historiography, and Political Science: Multiple Historical Records and the Problem of Selection Bias.” American Political Scienc Review 90, no. 3 (September): 605–18.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, David P., Coxe, Stefany, and Baraldi, Amanda N.. 2012. “Guidelines for the Investigation of Mediating Variables in Business Research.” Journal of Business and Psychology 27, no. 1 (March): 1–14.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, David P., Fairchild, Amanda J., and Fritz, Matthew S.. 2007. “Mediation Analysis.” Annual Review of Psychology 58 (January): 593–614.Google Scholar
Marks, Gary N. 2004. “Communist Party Membership in Five Former Soviet Bloc Countries, 1945–1989.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 37, no. 2 (June): 241–63.Google Scholar
Martin, Terry. 2001. The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Matonyte, Irmina. 2009. “Ex-Nomenklatura and Ex-Dissidents in the Post-Communist Parliaments of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.” Viesoji Politika ir Administravimas 1, no. 29: 28–39.Google Scholar
McAllister, Ian, and White, Stephen. 1995. “The Legacy of the Nomenklatura: Economic Privilege in Post-Communist Russia.” Coexistence 32, no. 3: 217–23.Google Scholar
McFaul, Michael, and Petrov, Nikolai, eds. 1998. Politicheskiy al’manakh Rossii 1997, vol. 2 [Political Almanac of Russia 1997]. Moscow, Russia: Carnegie Moscow Center.Google Scholar
McMann, Kelly M., and Petrov, Nikolai V.. 2000. “A Survey of Democracy in Russia’s Regions.” Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 41, no. 3 (April–May): 155–82.Google Scholar
Millar, James R. 1992. Cracks in the Monolith: Party Power in the Brezhnev Era. Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe.Google Scholar
Miller, Arthur H., Hesli, Vicki L., and Reisinger, William M.. 1997. “Conceptions of Democracy among Mass and Elite in Post-Soviet Societies.” British Journal of Political Science 27, no. 2 (April): 157–90.Google Scholar
Mishler, William, and Rose, Richard. 1997. “Trust, Distrust and Skepticism: Popular Evaluations of Civil and Political Institutions in Post-Communist Societies.” Journal of Politics 59, no. 2 (May): 418–51.Google Scholar
Moses, Joel C. 1981. “The Impact of Nomenklatura in Soviet Regional Elite Recruitment.” Soviet and Post-Soviet Review 8, no. 1: 62–102.Google Scholar
Nove, Alec. 1975. “Is There a Ruling Class in the USSR?” Soviet Studies 27, no. 4 (October): 615–38.Google Scholar
Obydenkova, Anastassia. 2008. “Regime Tansition in the Regions of Russia: The Freedom of Mass Media: Transnational Impact on Sub-National Democratization?” European Journal of Political Research 47, no. 2 (March): 221–46.Google Scholar
Obydenkova, Anastassia. 2011. “A Triangle of Russian Federalism: Democratization, (De-)Centralization, and Local Politics.” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 41, no. 4: 734–41.Google Scholar
Obydenkova, Anastassia. 2012. “Democratization at the Grassroots: The European Union’s External Impact.” Democratization 19, no. 2: 230–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obydenkova, Anastassia, and Libman, Alexander. 2012. “The Impact of External Factors on Regime Transition: Lessons from the Russian Regions.” Post-Soviet Affairs 28, no. 3: 346–401.Google Scholar
Obydenkova, Anastassia, and Libman, Alexander. 2013. “National Autocratization and Sub-National Democracy: Evidence from Russia’s Parliamentary Elections of 2011.” Acta Politica 48, no. 4: 459–89.Google Scholar
Obydenkova, Anastassia, and Libman, Alexander. 2015a. “Understanding the Survival of Post-Communist Corruption in Contemporary Russia: The Influence of Historical Legacies.” Post-Soviet Affairs 31, no. 4: 304–38.Google Scholar
Obydenkova, Anastassia, and Libman, Alexander. 2015b. Causes and Consequences of Democratization: The Regions of Russia. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Obydenkova, Anastassia, and Libman, Alexander. 2015c. Autocratic and Democratic External Influences in Post-Sovie t Eurasia. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Parkin, Frank. 1969. “Class Stratification in Socialist Societies.” British Journal of Sociology 20, no. 4 (December): 355–74.Google Scholar
Parkin, Frank. 1972. “System Contradiction and Political Transformation.” European Journal of Sociology/Archives Européennes de Sociologie 13, no. 1 (May): 45–62.Google Scholar
Pearl, Judea. 2012. “The Causal Mediation Formula: A Guide to the Assessment of Pathways and Mechanisms.” Prevention Science 13, no. 4 (August): 426–36.Google Scholar
Peisakhin, Leonid. 2013. “Long Run Persistence of Political Attitudes and Behaviour: A Focus on Mechanisms.” Paper presented at the Conference on Historical Legacies and Contemporary Politics, Juan March Institute, Madrid, June 14–15.Google Scholar
Petrov, Nikolai. 2005. “Regional Models of Democratic Development.” In McFaul, Michael, Petrov, Nikolai, and Ryabov, Andrei, eds., Between Dictatorship and Democracy: Russian Post-Communist Political Reform. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar
Pohl, Otto J. 2000. “Stalin’s Genocide against the ‘Repressed People.’ “ Journal of Genocide Research 2, no. 2 (June): 267–93.Google Scholar
Pop-Eleches, Grigore. 2007. “Historical Legacies and Post-Communist Regime Change.” Journal of Politics 69, no. 4 (November): 908–26.Google Scholar
Pop-Eleches, Grigore. 2014. “Communist Development and the Postcommunist Democratic Deficit.” In Kotkin, Stephen and Beissinger, Mark R., eds., Historical Legacies of Communism in Russia and Eastern Europe. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pop-Eleches, Grigore, and Tucker, Joshua. 2013a. “Associated with the Past? Communist Legacies and Civic Participation in Post-Communist Countries.” East European Politics and Societies 27, no. 1 (February): 45–68.Google Scholar
Pop-Eleches, Grigore, and Tucker, Joshua. 2013b. “Communism’s Shadow: The Effect of Communist Legacies on Post-Communist Preferences, Evaluations, and Behavior.” Paper presented at the Conference on Historical Legacies and Contemporary Politics, Juan March Institute, Madrid, June 14–15.Google Scholar
Reisinger, William M., and Moraski, Bryon J.. 2009. “Regional Voting in Russia’s Federal Elections and Changing Regional Deference to the Kremlin.” Manuscript, University of Iowa.Google Scholar
Rigby, T. H. 1968. Communist Party Membership in the U.S.S.R., 1917–1967. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Rigby, T. H.. 1990. Political Elites in the USSR: Central Leaders and Local Cadres from Lenin to Gorbachev. Aldershot, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Róbert, Péter. 1991. “Educational Transition in Hungary from the Post-War Period to the End of the 1980s.” European Sociological Review 7, no. 3 (December): 213–36.Google Scholar
Roeder, Philip. 1991. “Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization.” World Politics 43, no. 2 (January): 196–232.Google Scholar
Rohrschneider, Robert. 1994. “Report from the Laboratory: The Influence of Institutions on Political Elites’ Democratic Values in Germany.” American Political Science Review 88, no. 4 (December): 927–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, Michael L. 2001. “Does Oil Hinder Democracy?” World Politics 53, no. 3 (April): 325–61.Google Scholar
Rustow, Dankwart A. 1966. “The Study of Elites: Who’s Who, When, and How.” World Politics 18, no. 4 (July): 690–717.Google Scholar
Rustow, Dankwart A.. 1970. “Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model.” Comparative Politics 2, no. 3 (April): 337–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siniavsky, Andrei. 1988. Soviet Civilization: A Cultural History: New York, N.Y.: Arcade.Google Scholar
Snyder, Richard. 2001. “Scaling Down: The Subnational Comparative Method.” Studies in Comparative International Development 36, no. 1 (Spring): 93–110.Google Scholar
Szelényi, Szonja. 1987. “Social Inequality and Party Membership: Patterns of Recruitment into the Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party.” American Sociological Review 52, no. 1 (October): 559–73.Google Scholar
Tingley, Dustin, Yamamoto, Teppei, Hirose, Kintaro, Keele, Luke, and Imai, Kosuke. 2014. “Mediation: R Package for Causal Mediation Analysis.” Journal of Statistical Software 59, no. 5 (August): 1–38.Google Scholar
Troynitskiy, N. A., ed. 1905. Obshchiy svod po imperii rezul’tatov razrabotki dannykh pervoy vseobshchey perepisi naseleniya, proizvedyonnoy 28 Yanvarya 1897 goda. [Empire-Wide Results Based on the Processing of Data for the First General Population Census, January 28, 1897]. St. Petersburg, Russia: Tipografiya N. L. Nyrkina.Google Scholar
Varlamenkov, V. N. 2008. “Osobennosti kadrovoy politiki v obrazovatel’noy sfere v 20-kh godakh XX veka v Povolzhskom regione.” Vestnik samarskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 1, no. 60: 350–61.Google Scholar
Volkov, Sergey. 1999. Intellektual’nyy sloy v sovetskom obshchestve [The Intellectual Layer in Soviet Society]. St. Petersburg, Russia: Russian Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Wittenberg, Jason. 2006. Crucibles of Political Loyalty: Church Institutions and Electoral Continuity in Hungary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wittenberg, Jason. 2012. “What Is a Historical Legacy?” Manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Wong, Raymond Sin-Kwok. 1996. “The Social Composition of the Czechoslovak and Hungarian Communist Parties in the 1980s.” Social Forces 75, no. 1 (September): 61–89.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Lankina supplementary material

Lankina supplementary material 1

Download Lankina supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 898.5 KB