Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-sxzjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T18:59:33.568Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Logic of Illicit Flows in Armed Conflict

Explaining Variation in Violent Nonstate Group Interactions in Colombia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 June 2020

Annette Idler Open the ORCID record for Annette Idler [Opens in a new window]
Get access

Abstract

Why is there variation in how violent nonstate groups interact in armed conflict? Where armed conflict and organized crime converge in unstable regions worldwide, these groups sometimes enter cooperative arrangements with opposing groups. Within the same unstable setting, violent nonstate groups forge stable, long-term relations with each other in some regions, engage in unstable, short-term arrangements in others, and dispute each other elsewhere. Even though such paradoxical arrangements have intensified and perpetuated war, extant theories on group interactions that focus on territory and motivations overlook their concurrent character. Challenging the literature that focuses on conflict dynamics alone, the author argues that the spatial distribution of illicit flows influences how these interactions vary. By mapping cocaine supply chain networks, the author shows that long-term arrangements prevail at production sites, whereas short-term arrangements cluster at trafficking nodes. The article demonstrates through process tracing how the logic of illicit flows produces variation in the groups’ cooperative arrangements. This multiyear, multisited study includes over six hundred interviews in and about Colombia’s remote, war-torn borderlands.

Keywords

civil warColombiadrug traffickingintrastate conflictLatin Americaorganized crimesecurity studies
Type
Research Article
Information
World Politics , Volume 72 , Issue 3 , July 2020 , pp. 335 - 376
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahmad, Aisha. 2015. “The Security Bazaar: Business Interests and Islamist Power in Civil War Somalia.” International Security 39, no. 3: 89–117. doi: 10.1162/ISEC_a_00187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreas, Peter. 2004. “Criminalized Legacies of War: The Clandestine Political Economy of the Western Balkans.” Problems of Post-Communism 51, no. 3: 3–9. doi: 10.1080/10758216.2004.11052164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreas, Peter. 2015. “International Politics and the Illicit Global Economy.” Perspectives on Politics 13, no. 3: 782–88. doi: 10.1017/S1537592715001358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreas, Peter. 2019. “Crime, Violence, and Illicit Economies in Regional and Global Perspective.” Perspectives on Politics 17, no. 2: 485–91. doi:10.1017/S1537592719000422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arquilla, John, and Ronfeldt, David, eds. 2001. Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime, and Militancy. Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation.Google Scholar
Asal, Victor, Brinton Milward, H., and Eric, W. Schoon. 2015. “When Terrorists Go Bad: Analyzing Terrorist Organizations’ Involvement in Drug Smuggling.” International Studies Quarterly 59, no. 1: 112–23. doi: 10.1111/isqu.12162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ávila, Ariel. 2013. La Frontera Caliente Entre Colombia y Venezuela. Bogotá, Colombia: Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial.Google Scholar
Ávila Martínez, Ariel, and Núñez Gantiva, Magda Paola. 2010. “Las Dinámicas Territoriales del Ejército de Liberación Nacional: Arauca, Cauca y Nariño.” Arcanos 15: 22–33. At https://alfresco.uclouvain.be/alfresco/service/guest/streamDownload/workspace/SpacesStore/94f1062d-b821-4986-9634-ebf607eacd63/CNAI%20-%20Dinamicas%20territoriales%20ELN%202010.pdf?guest=true, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Axelrod, Robert M. 1984. The Evolution of Cooperation. New York, N.Y.: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Axelrod, Robert M., and Robert, O. Keohane. 1985. “Achieving Cooperation under Anarchy: Strategies and Institutions.” World Politics 38, no. 1 (October): 226–54. doi: 10.2307/2010357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bair, Jennifer. 2005. “Global Capitalism and Commodity Chains: Looking Back, Going Forward.” Competition & Change 9, no. 2: 153–80. doi:10.1179/102452905X45382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakke, Kristin M., Kathleen Gallagher Cunningham, and Lee, J. M. Seymour. 2012. “A Plague of Initials: Fragmentation, Cohesion, and Infighting in Civil Wars.” Perspectives on Politics 10, no. 2: 265–83. doi:10.1017/S1537592712000667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bapat, Navin A., and Kanisha, D. Bond. 2012. “Alliances between Militant Groups.” British Journal of Political Science 42, no. 4: 793-824. doi:10.1017/S0007123412000075.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
News, BBC. 2015. “Victor Navarro Dead: Colombia Kills Most Wanted Drug Lord.” October 2. At https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-34430555, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Beardsley, Kyle, Kristian Skrede Gleditsch, and Lo, Nigel. 2015. “Roving Bandits? The Geographical Evolution of African Armed Conflicts.” International Studies Quarterly 59, no. 3: 503–16. doi: 10.1111/isqu.12196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berdal, Mats, and David, M. Malone. 2000. “Introduction.” In Berdal, Mats and David, M. Malone, eds., Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers: 1–18.Google Scholar
Boix, Carles. 2008. “Economic Roots of Civil Wars and Revolutions in the Contemporary World.” World Politics 60, no. 3 (April): 390–437. doi:10.1017/S0043887100009047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, Kanisha D. 2010. “Power, Identity, Credibility and Cooperation: Examining the Development of Cooperative Arrangements among Violent Non-State Actors.” Ph.D. diss., Pennsylvania State University. At https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/catalog/11071, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Carter Center. 2014. “Syria: Countrywide Conflict Report #4.” Atlanta, Ga.: Carter Center. At http://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/NationwideUpdate-Sept-18-2014.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Castells, Manuel. 2010. End of Millennium, Vol. 3, 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christia, Fotini. 2012. Alliance Formation in Civil Wars. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christopher, Martin. 1998. Logistics and Supply Chain Management: Strategies for Reducing Cost and Improving Service, 2nd ed. London, UK: Financial Times/Pitman.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clawson, Patrick L., and Rensselaer, W.Lee, III. 1996. The Andean Cocaine Industry. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CNMH. 2018. “Observatorio de Memoria y Conflicto.” Cutoff date: September 15, 2018. Bogotá, Colombia: Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica y Observatorio de Memoria y Conflicto. At http://centrodememoriahistorica.gov.co/observatorio/, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul, and Hoeffler, Anke. 2004. “Greed and Grievance in Civil Wars.” Oxford Economic Papers 56, no. 4: 563–95. doi: 10.1093/oep/gpf064.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, Karen S., Hardin, Russell, and Levi, Margaret. 2005. Cooperation without Trust? New York, N.Y.: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
De Boer, John, and Bosetti, Louise. 2017. “The Crime-Conflict Nexus: Assessing the Threat and Developing Solutions.” Crime-Conflict Nexus Series, no. 1. New York, N.Y.: United Nations University Center for Policy Research. At https://i.unu.edu/media/cpr.unu.edu/attachment/2536/Synopsis-Crime-Conflict-FINAL.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Denyer Willis, Graham. 2015. The Killing Consensus:Police, Organized Crime, and the Regulation of Life and Death in Urban Brazil. Oakland, Calif.: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deville, Duncan. 2013. “The Illicit Supply Chain.” In Miklaucic, Michael and Brewer, Jacqueline, eds., Convergence: Illicit Networks and National Security in the Age of Globalization. Washington D.C.: National Defense University: 63–74.Google Scholar
Dicken, Peter, Philip, F. Kelly, Olds, Kris, and Henry Wai-Chung Yeung. 2001. “Chains and Networks, Territories and Scales: Towards a Relational Framework for Analysing the Global Economy.” Global Networks 1, no. 2: 89–112. doi: 10.1111/1471-0374.00007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diehl, Paul F., and Goertz, Gary. 2000. War and Peace in International Rivalry. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dishman, Chris. 2001. “Terrorism, Crime and Transformation.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 24, no. 1: 43–58. doi: 10.1080/10576100118878.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixit, Avinash K., Skeath, Susan, and David, H.Jr, Reiley. 2009. Games of Strategy, 3rd ed. New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Duran-Martinez, Angelica. 2015. “To Kill and Tell? State Power, Criminal Competition, and Drug Violence.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59, no. 8: 1377–402. doi: 10.1177/0022002715587047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duran-Martinez, Angelica. 2018. The Politics of Drug Violence: Criminals, Cops, and Politicians in Colombia and Mexico. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ehrenfeld, Rachel. 1990. Narco-Terrorism. New York, N.Y.: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Eilstrup-Sangiovanni, Mette, and Jones, Calvert. 2008. “Assessing the Dangers of Illicit Networks: Why al-Qaida May Be Less Threatening Than Many Think.” International Security 33, no. 2: 7–44. doi: 10.1162/isec.2008.33.2.7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. 1989. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14, no. 4: 532–50. doi: 10.2307/258557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farah, Douglas. 2012. “Fixers, Super Fixers and Shadow Facilitators: How Networks Connect.” Alexandria, Va.: International Assessment and Strategy Center. At https://cco.ndu.edu/Portals/96/Documents/Articles/Fixers_Super-Fixers_and_Shadow_Facilitators_Farah.pdf, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Felbab-Brown, Vanda. 2010. “Rules and Regulations in Ungoverned Spaces: Illicit Economies, Criminals, and Belligerents.” In Anne, L. Clunan and Harold, A. Trinkunas, eds., Ungoverned Spaces: Alternatives to State Authority in an Era of Softened Sovereignty. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press: 175–92.Google Scholar
Felbab-Brown, Vanda, Trinkunas, Harold, and Hamid, Shadi. 2017. Militants, Criminals, and Warlords: The Challenge of Local Governance in an Age of Disorder. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Fundación Ideas para la Paz, United States Agency for International Development, and Organización Internacional para las Migraciones. 2014. “Dinámicas del Conflicto Armado en Tumaco y su Impacto Humanitario.” Boletín 69. Área de Dinámicas del Conflicto y Negociaciones de Paz. Bogotá, Colombia: Fundación Ideas para la Paz. At http://cdn.ideaspaz.org/media/website/document/52f8ecc452239.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Fundación Paz & Reconciliación 2017. “La Ciudad de Tumaco. Una Historia de Recomposición de Actores en el Territorio.” Estudios de Seguridad. Documentos de Análisis. Línea de Seguridad Urbana y Crimen Organizado. Bogotá, Colombia: Fundación Paz & Reconciliación. At https://pares.com.co/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Estudios-de-Seguridad-Tumaco.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Gambetta, Diego. 1990. “Mafia: The Price of Distrust.” In Gambetta, Diego, ed., Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell: 158–75.Google Scholar
Gambetta, Diego. 1993. The Sicilian Mafia: The Business of Private Protection. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gambetta, Diego. 2009. Codes of the Underworld: How Criminals Communicate. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, Alexander L., and Bennett, Andrew. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Gereffi, Gary, and Korzeniewicz, Miguel, eds. 1994. Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.Google Scholar
Gereffi, Gary, Korzeniewicz, Miguel, and Roberto, P. Korzeniewicz. 1994. “Introduction.” In Gereffi, Gary and Korzeniewicz, Miguel, eds., Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.Google Scholar
Gibbons, Robert. 1992. Game Theory for Applied Economists. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gootenberg, Paul. 2008. Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Gootenberg, Paul. 2012. “Cocaine’s Long March North, 1900–2010.” Latin American Politics and Society 54, no. 1: 159–80. doi: 10.1111/j.1548-2456.2012.00146.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Govindan, Kannan, Fattahi, Mohammad, and Keyvanshokooh, Esmaeil. 2017. “Supply Chain Network Design under Uncertainty: A Comprehensive Review and Future Research Directions.” European Journal of Operational Research 263, no. 1: 108–41. doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2017.04.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutiérrez-Sanín, Francisco, and Barón, Mauricio. 2005. “Re-Stating the State: Paramilitary Territorial Control and Political Order in Colombia (1978–2004).” Crisis States Programme Working Paper Series, no. 66 (September). London, UK: London School of Economics and Political Science. At http://www.lse.ac.uk/international-development/Assets/Documents/PDFs/csrc-working-papers-phase-one/wp66-restating-the-state-in-colombia.pdf, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez-Sanín, Francisco, and Jean Wood, Elisabeth. 2017. “What Should We Mean by ‘Pattern of Political Violence’? Repertoire, Targeting, Frequency, and Technique.” Perspectives on Politics 15, no. 1: 20-41. doi:10.1017/S1537592716004114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobsbawm, Eric. 2000. Bandits. New York, N.Y.: New Press.Google Scholar
Idler, Annette. 2015. “Megateo, the Armed Groups and the Future of the People of Colombia’s Catatumbo.” OpenDemocracy (blog). At https://www.opendemocracy.net/democraciaabierta/annette-idler/megateo-armed-groups-and-future-of-people-of-colombia-s-catatumbo, accessed October 28, 2015.Google Scholar
Idler, Annette. 2019. Borderland Battles: Violence, Crime, and Governance at the Edges of Colombia’s War. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Annette, Idler. 2020. “Supplementary material for: The Logic of Illicit Flows in Armed Conflict: Explaining Variation in Violent Nonstate Group Interactions in Colombia.” doi: 10.1017/S0043887120000040.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
InSight Crime. 2016. “Victor Navarro, Alias ‘Megateo’.” InSight Crime (blog). At http://www.insightcrime.org/personalities-colombia/megateo-epl, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
InSight Crime. 2017. “Águilas Negras.” InSight Crime (blog). At https://www.insightcrime.org/colombia-organized-crime-news/aguilas-negras/, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2005. “War and Drugs in Colombia.” Latin America & Caribbean Report, no. 11. Bogotá, Colombia, and Brussels, Belgium: International Crisis Group. At https://www.crisisgroup.org/latin-america-caribbean/andes/colombia/war-and-drugs-colombia, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2001. “‘New’ and ‘Old’ Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?” World Politics 54, no. 1 (October): 99–118. doi:10.1353/wp.2001.0022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2003. “The Ontology of ‘Political Violence’: Action and Identity in Civil Wars.” Perspectives on Politics 1, no. 3: 475–94. doi:10.1017/S1537592703000355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2004. “The Urban Bias in Research on Civil Wars.” Security Studies 13, no. 3: 160–90. doi: 10.1080/09636410490914022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2015. “How Civil Wars Help Explain Organized Crime— and How They Do Not.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59, no. 8: 1517–40. doi: 10.1177/0022002715587101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N., and Matthew Adam Kocher. 2007. “How ‘Free’ Is Free Riding in Civil Wars? Violence, Insurgency, and the Collective Action Problem.” World Politics 59, no. 2 (January): 177–216. doi: 10.1353/wp.2007.0023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keohane, Robert O. 2005. After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kivimäki, Timo, and Pasch, Paul. 2009. “The Dynamics of Conflict in the Multiethnic Union of Myanmar.” PCIA—Country Conflict-Analysis Study. Berlin, Germany: Friedrich-Ebert Stiftung. At https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/07808.pdf, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Klibi, Walid, and Martel, Alain. 2012. “Scenario-Based Supply Chain Network Risk Modeling.” European Journal of Operational Research 223, no. 3: 644–58. doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2012.06.027.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Opinion, La. 2019. “Así Sacaban la Cocaína para el Cartel de Sinaloa.” November 26. At https://www.laopinion.com.co/judicial/asi-sacaban-la-cocaina-para-el-cartel-de-sinaloa-187707#OP, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Lake, Milli. 2017. “Building the Rule of War: Postconflict Institutions and the Micro-Dynamics of Conflict in Eastern DR Congo.” International Organization 71, no. 2: 281–315. doi: 10.1017/S002081831700008X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laverde, Zully, and Tapia, Edwin. 2009. Tensión en las Fronteras. Bogotá, Colombia: CODHES.Google Scholar
Lessing, Benjamin. 2017. Making Peace in Drug Wars: Crackdowns and Cartels in Latin America. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lexico Oxford Dictionary. 2019. “Definition of Fidelity in English.” At https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/fidelity, accessed November 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Makarenko, Tamara. 2004. “The Crime-Terror Continuum: Tracing the Interplay between Transnational Organised Crime and Terrorism.” Global Crime 6, no. 1: 129–45. doi: 10.1080/1744057042000297025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marten, Kimberly. 2007. “Warlordism in Comparative Perspective.” International Security 31, no. 3: 41–73. doi: 10.1162/isec.2007.31.3.41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLauchlin, Théodore. 2010. “Loyalty Strategies and Military Defection in Rebellion.” Comparative Politics 42, no. 3: 333-50. doi:10.5129/001041510X12911363509792.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLauchlin, Théodore, Pearlman, Wendy, and Kathleen Gallagher Cunningham. 2012. “Out-Group Conflict, In-Group Unity? Exploring the Effect of Repression on Intramovement Cooperation.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 56, no. 1: 41–66. doi: 10.1177/0022002711429707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mearsheimer, John J. 2001. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Moncada, Eduardo. 2016. “Urban Violence, Political Economy and Territorial Control: Insights from Medellín.” Latin American Research Review 51, no. 4: 225–48. doi: 10.1353/lar.2016.0057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mukhopadhyay, Dipali. 2016. Warlords, Strongman Governors, and the State in Afghanistan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Naylor, R. Thomas. 1993. “The Insurgent Economy: Black Market Operations of Guerrilla Organizations.” Crime, Law and Social Change 20, no. 1: 13–51. doi: 10.1007/BF01308447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nellemann, C., Henriksen, R., Pravettoni, R., Stewart, D., Kotsovou, M., Schlingemann, M. A. J., Shaw, M., and Reitano, T., eds. 2018. World Atlas of Illicit Flows. A RHIPTO-INTERPOL-GI Assessment. RHIPTO-Norwegian Center for Global Analyses, INTERPOL, and the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. At https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Atlas-Illicit-Flows-Second-Edition-EN-WEB.pdf, accessed February 1, 2020.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancur. 1993. “Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development.” American Political Science Review 87, no. 3: 567–76. doi: 10.2307/2938736.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osorio, Javier. 2013. “Hobbes on Drugs: Understanding Drug Violence in Mexico.” Ph.D. diss., University of Notre Dame. At https://curate.nd.edu/show/08612n51n19, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Pearlman, Wendy, and Kathleen Gallagher Cunningham. 2012. “Nonstate Actors, Fragmentation, and Conflict Processes.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 56, no. 1: 3–15. doi: 10.1177/0022002711429669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Percy, Sarah, and Shortland, Anja. 2013. “The Business of Piracy in Somalia.”Journal of Strategic Studies 36, no. 4: 541–78. doi: 10.1080/01402390.2012.750242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reno, William. 1998. Warlord Politics and African States. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Reno, William. 2011. “Crime versus War.” In Strachan, Hew and Scheipers, Sibylle, eds., The Changing Character of War. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press: 220–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodgers, Dennis, and Baird, Adam. 2015. “Understanding Gangs in Contemporary Latin America.” In Scott, H. Decker and David, C. Pyrooz, eds., Handbook of Gangs. New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Saab, Bilal Y., and Alexandra, W. Taylor. 2009. “Criminality and Armed Groups: A Comparative Study of FARC and Paramilitary Groups in Colombia.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 32, no. 6: 455–75. doi: 10.1080/10576100902892570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salehyan, Idean. 2007. “Transnational Rebels: Neighboring States as Sanctuary for Rebel Groups.” World Politics 59, no. 2 (January): 217–42. doi: 10.1353/wp.2007.0024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmid, Alex. 1996. “Links between Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorist Crimes.” Transnational Organized Crime 2, no. 4: 40–82. At https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=174218, accessed June 7, 2017.Google Scholar
Schneckener, Ulrich. 2009. “Spoilers or Governance Actors? Engaging Armed Non-State Groups in Areas of Limited Statehood.” SFB-Governance Working Paper Series, no. 21. Berlin, Germany: Collaborative Research Center (SFB) 700. At https://www.sfb-govermance.de/en/publikationen/sfb-700-working_papers/wp21/index.html, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Schwandt, Thomas A. 2007. The SAGE Dictionary of Qualitative Inquiry, 3rd ed. London, UK: SAGE Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seawright, Jason, and Gerring, John. 2008. “Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options.” Political Research Quarterly 61, no. 2: 294–308. doi: 10.1177/1065912907313077.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seymour, Lee J. M. 2014. “Why Factions Switch Sides in Civil Wars: Rivalry, Patronage, and Realignment in Sudan.” International Security 39, no. 2: 92–131. doi: 10.1162/ISEC_a_00179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sistemas de Alertas Tempranas. 2008. “Informe de Riesgo N° 029-08 A.I.” Bogotá, Colombia: Defensoría del Pueblo de Colombia.Google Scholar
Snyder, Lawrence V., Maria, P. Scaparra, Mark, S. Daskin, and Richard, L. Church. 2006. “Planning for Disruptions in Supply Chain Networks.” In Michael, P. Johnson, Norman, Bryan, and Secomandi, Nicola, eds., Models, Methods, and Applications for Innovative Decision Making. Catonsville, Md.: INFORMS: 234-57. doi: 10.1287/educ.1063.0025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2012. “States, Insurgents, and Wartime Political Orders.” Perspectives on Politics 10, no. 2: 243–64. doi: 10.1017/S1537592712000655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, Scott. 2010. “Mexico and the Cartel Wars in 2010.” Security Weekly, December 16. At http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20101215-mexico-and-cartel-wars-2010, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Stewart, Scott. 2016. “From Colombia to New York City: The Narconomics of Cocaine.” Business Insider, June 27. At http://www.businessinsider.com/from-colombia-to-new-york-city-the-economics-of-cocaine-2015-7?IR=T, accessed March 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Swenson, Geoffrey. 2017. “Why U.S. Efforts to Promote the Rule of Law in Afghanistan Failed.” International Security 42, no. 1: 114–51. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tamm, Henning. 2016. “The Origins of Transnational Alliances: Rulers, Rebels, and Political Survival in the Congo Wars.” International Security 41, no. 1: 147–81. doi: 10.1162/ISEC_a_00252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, William R. 2001. “Identifying Rivals and Rivalries in World Politics.” International Studies Quarterly 45, no. 4: 557–86. www.jstor.org/stable/30 96060.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thoumi, Francisco E. 2003. Illegal Drugs, Economy and Society in the Andes. Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Md.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Tickner, Arlene Beth, García, Diego, and Arrezea, Catalina. 2011. “Actores Violentos no Estatales y Narcotráfico en Colombia.” In Alejandro Gavira Uribe and Daniel Mejía Londoño, eds., Políticas Antidroga en Colombia: Éxitos, Fracasos y Extravíos. Bogotá, Colombia: Universidad de los Andes: 413–45.Google Scholar
UNHCR. 2019. Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2018. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. At https://www.unhcr.org/5d08d7ee7.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
Colombia, UNHCR. 2020. “La Respuesta de ACNUR a Refugiados y Migrantes Venezolanos, Colombianos Retornados, Desplazados y Comunidades de Acogida.” Internal presentation, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Colombia, February 26.Google Scholar
UNODC. 2014a. “World Drug Report 2014.” Vienna, Austria: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. At https://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr2014/World_Drug_Report_2014_web.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
UNODC. 2014b. “Colombia. Monitoreo de Cultivos de Coca 2013.” Bogotá, Colombia: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the Government of Colombia. At https://www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Colombia/Colombia_Monitoreo_de_Cultivos_de_Coca_2013_web.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
UNODC. 2016. “World Drug Report 2016.” Vienna, Austria: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. At https://www.unodc.org/doc/wdr2016/WORLD_DRUG_REPORT_2016_web.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
UNODC. 2019. “Colombia. Monitoreo de Territorios Afectados por Cultivos Ilícitos 2018.” Bogotá, Colombia: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the Government of Colombia. At https://www.unodc.org/documents/colombia/2019/Agosto/Informe_de_Monitoreo_de_Territorios_Afectador_por_Cultivos_Ilicitos_en_Colombia_2018_.pdf, accessed December 14, 2019.Google Scholar
van Schendel, Willem, and Abraham, Itty, eds. 2005. Illicit Flows and Criminal Things: States, Borders, and the Other Side of Globalization. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University PressGoogle Scholar
Weidmann, Nils B. 2016. “Micro-Cleavages and Violence in Civil Wars: A Computational Assessment.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 33, no. 5: 53958. doi: 10.1177/0738894215570433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Bernard. 1990. “Formal Structures and Social Reality.” In Gambetta, Diego, ed., Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell: 3–13.Google Scholar
Williams, Phil. 2002. “Cooperation among Criminal Organizations.” In Berdal, Mats and Serano, Mónica, eds., Transnational Organized Crime and International Security: Business as Usual? Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers: 67–82.Google Scholar
Williams, Phil. 2009. Criminals, Militias, and Insurgents: Organized Crime in Iraq. Carlisle, Pa.: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Phil, and Godson, Roy. 2002. “Anticipating Organized and Transnational Crime.” Crime, Law and Social Change 37, no. 4: 311–55. doi: 10.1023/A:1016095317864.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Reed M., and Jacob, D. Kathman. 2015. “Competing for the Crown: Inter-Rebel Competition and Civilian Targeting in Civil War.” Political Research Quarterly 68, no. 1: 167–79. doi: 10.1177/1065912914563546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yashar, Deborah J. 2018. Homicidal Ecologies: Illicit Economies and Complicit States in Latin America. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Idler supplementary material

Idler supplementary material

Download Idler supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 257.9 KB