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¹⁸ This tax break covers 50 percent of the cost of home care, up to a €6900 ceiling.

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⁴⁰ This contrasts with the Froebelian kindergartens and similarly inspired preschool programs in other countries, which tended to be privately operated, oriented around the bourgeoisie, and available for a few hours a day.

⁴¹ Blackstone, Tessa, “Some Aspects of the Structure and Extent of Nursery Education in Five European Countries,” Comparative Education 7 (December 1971), 92, 96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar In addition, the mandatory school age in Sweden was seven, but only 43 percent of Swedish six year olds were in preschool education in the late 1960s.

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⁴³ Ibid.

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⁵⁸ One of the more conservative associations, Families de France, does sometimes separate itself from UNAF when strongly opposed to a particular government policy, so as to speak with its own voice. See Claude Martin and Patrick Hassenteufel, La representation des interetsfamiliaux en Europe: Alle-magne, Belgique, Grande-Bretagne, France, Portugal (Representation of family interests in Europe: Germany, Belgium, Great Britain, France, Portugal) (Report for the European Commission, General Division Five, September 1997), 84.

⁵⁹ Duchen (fn. 8), 105; Lenoir (fn. 51), 160–62.

⁶⁰ Commissariat Général du Plan de Modernisation et d'équipement, Troisième plan de developpement économique et social: Rapport général de la Commission de la main d'oeuvre (Third economic and social development plan: General report of the labor force commission) (Paris: 1958), 182–86.

⁶¹ “Rapport du Ministre de la Santé Publique et de la Population sur la Protection Maternelle et Infantile au cours de la période comprise entre le ler Janvier 1946 et le 31 Décembre 1951” (Report of the minister of public health and population on maternal and infant health in the period from January 1, 1946 to December 31, 1951), Journal Officiel: Annexe Administratif (July 16, 1956); and Alain Norvez, De la naissance à I'é'cole: Santé, modes de garde et préscolarité dam la France contemporaine (From birth to school: Health care, day care and preschool in contemporary France) (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1990), 372–73.

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⁶⁵ The direct election of the president (starting in 1962) and the use of the scrutin d'arrondissement à deux tours produced a bipolarization of the electorate, which, in turn, put pressure on centrist parties such as the MRP.

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⁶⁷ Kalyvas (fn. 45), 115.

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⁷⁷ Olivier Guichard, speech to the French Parliament, Journal Officiel, November 12, 1969, 3581.

⁷⁸ Lenoir(fn. 51), 165–66.

⁷⁹ Ibid., 166.

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⁸³ See, for example, Jacqueline de Linares, “Le droit d'avoir des enfants” (The right to have children), L'Express, November 6, 1972, 102; “Enfance telle que je la réve” (Childhood as I dream of it), Réforme, February 24, 1973; and Christiane Sacase, “Des crèches sauvages pour les enfants de Mai” (Unauthorized child care for the children of May), L'Express, December 8, 1969, 99.

⁸⁴ Liane Mozère, Lepnntemps des créches: Histoire et analyse d'un mouvement (Springtime for the crèches: History and analysis of a movement) (Paris: Editions L'Harmattan, 1992).

⁸⁵ Sullerot and Michèle Saltiel, Les crèches et les équipements d'accueil pour la petite enfance (Crèches and day care services for young children) (Paris: Hachette, 1974).

⁸⁶ On Germany, see Kolbe, Wiebke, “Gender and Parenthood in West German Family Politics from the 1960s to the 1980s,” in Torstendahl, Rolf, ed., State Policy and Gender System in the Two German States and Sweden: 1945–1989 (Uppsala, Sweden: Department of History, 1999)Google Scholar; on The Netherlands, see Bussemaker, , “Rationales of Care in Contemporary Welfare States: The Case of Childcare in the Netherlands,” Social Politics 5 (Spring 1998), 76–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸⁹ Ancelin, L'Action sociale familiale et les Caisses d'allocations Familiales (Social services for families and the family benefits funds) (Paris: Documentation Française, 1997), 244–48.

⁹⁰ See, for example, “Les maires communists réclament une participation des enterprises au financement des creches” (Communist mayors call for employer participation infinancingchild care centers), Le Monde, April 2, 1974; “Crèches: Le gouvernment refuse de faire payer les patrons” (Child care: The government refuses to make employers pay), L'Humanité, October 13, 1972; Françoise Lazard, “Petite enfance et émancipation de la femme” (Early childhood and the emancipation of women), L'Humanité, December 11, 1970; and Eric Eauvives, “La bataille des crèches” (Battle for child care), Rouge, June 9, 1977.

⁹¹ “Deux milles crèches: Nous tiendrons le défi” (Two thousand child care centers: We will meet the challenge), Le Monde, February 2, 1974; and Francois Depuis, “Le desarroi des meres” (The distress of mothers), Le Nouvel Observateur, May 13, 1974.

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⁹⁶ Jenson and Sineau, “Quand ‘liberté de choix’ ne rime pas avec égalite républicaine” (When ‘free choice’ does not rhyme with republican equality), in Jenson and Sineau, eds., Qui doitgarder le jeune enfant? Modes d'accueilet travail des meres dans I'Europe en crise (Who should take care of the young child? Day care and mothers' employment in a Europe in crisis) (Paris: LGDJ, 1998), 152–53.

⁹⁷ Antoine Math and Evelyne Renaudat, “Développer l'accueil des enfants ou creer l'emploi? Une lecture de l'evolution des politiques en matière de modes de garde” (Create child care or create employment? A reading of the evolution of child care policies), Recherches et Previsions 49 (September 1997).

⁹⁸ Jenson and Sineau (fn. 96), 154.

⁹⁹ van Kersbergen (fn. 11); and Esping-Andersen, (fn. 19).

¹⁰⁰ Fix (fn. 75).

¹⁰¹ Bussemaker, “Recent Changes in European Welfare State Services: A Comparison of Child Care Politics in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany, and the Netherlands,” Working Paper 7.6, Center for European Studies, Harvard University, January 1997.

¹⁰² For details, see Morgan, “Whose Hand Rocks the Cradle? The Politics of Child Care Policy in Advanced Industrialized States” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 2001).

¹⁰³ The term is from Archambault (fn. 44). See Wijkstrom, Filip, “Changing Focus or Changing Role? The Swedish Nonprofit Sector in the 1990s,” German Policy Studies 1 (May 2000)Google Scholar. Wijkstrom points out that, contrary to the commonly held view, the nonprofit sector is well developed in Sweden, but that its role in welfare and social services is substantially smaller there than in many continental European countries.

¹⁰⁴ Some accounts of the development of public day care in Sweden and Denmark are Ruggie, Mary, The State and Working Women: A Comparative Study of Britain and Sweden (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Leira, Arnlaug, Welfare States and Working Mothers: The Scandinavian Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹² See chapters by Borchorst, Anette and by Bergqvist, Christina and Nyberg, Anita in Michel, Sonya and Mahon, Rianne, eds., Child Care Policy at the Crossroads: Gender and Welfare State Restructuring (New York and London: Routledge Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

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