Hostname: page-component-7f64f4797f-zzvtc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-11-04T00:20:30.682Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Functional patterns of exogenous enzymes in different feedingredients

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2013

Y.M. BAO ,
L.F. ROMERO  and
A.J. COWIESON
Y.M. BAO
Affiliation:
Poultry Research Foundation, Veterinary Science Faculty, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
L.F. ROMERO
Affiliation:
Danisco Animal Nutrition – DuPont Industrial Biosciences, Marlborough, Wiltshire, SN81XN, United Kingdom
A.J. COWIESON*
Affiliation:
Poultry Research Foundation, Veterinary Science Faculty, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
*
Corresponding author: Aaron.Cowieson@sydney.edu.au
Get access

Abstract

The use of carbohydrases and proteases in poultry production occasionally resultsin inconsistent physiological responses that are difficult to explain. However,it has previously been demonstrated that a substantial portion of the variationin enzyme efficacy is associated with the inherent ileal digestibility ofstarch, protein and lipid, and so an appreciation for the concentration of theundigested fractions of these nutrients in a diet may help to determine themagnitude and consistency of feed enzyme responses. Considering that the expenseof in vivo physiological assays for the assessment of enzymefunctional pattern is high, it is crucial to develop suitable invitro methods to predict the magnitude of enzyme response. The purposeof the current paper is to describe inherent characteristics of poultry dietsand feed ingredients in response to carbohydrases and proteases in order to aidthe development of in vitro assays to predict feed enzymefunctional patterns.

Keywords

carbohydrasesin vitro studyileal digestibilitybroilers

Information

Type
Review Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 69 , Issue 4 , December 2013 , pp. 759 - 774
Copyright
Copyright © World's Poultry Science Association 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

ADEOLA, O. and COWIESON, A.J. (2011) Opportunities and challenges in using exogenous enzymes to improve non-ruminant animal production. Journal of Animal Science 89: 3189-3218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ALLEE, G.L. and BAKER, D.H. (1970) Limiting nitrogenous factors in corn protein for adult female swine. Journal of Animal Science 30: 748-752.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
AL-MARZOOQI, W., KADIM, I.T., MAHGOUB, O., Al-BUSAID, M., Al-LAWATI, S.M., AlMAQBALY, R., Al-WHEEBI, S. and Al-BAKERY, A.N. (2010) Apparent ileal amino acids digestibility of four varieties of barley for two strains of chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science 9: 527-532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ALMIRALL, M., FRANCESCH, M., PEREZ-VENDRELL, A.M., BRUFAU, J. and ESTEVE-GARCIA, E. (1995) The differences in intestinal viscosity produced by barley and ß-glucanase alter digesta enzyme activities and ileal nutrient digestibility more in broiler chicks than in cocks. The Journal of Nutrition 125: 947-955.Google Scholar
AL-RABADI, G.L., TORLEY, P.J., WILLIAMS, B.A., BRYDEN, W.L. and GIDLEY, M.J. (2012) Particle size heterogeneity in milled barley and sorghum grains: effects on physio-chemical properties and starch digestibility. Journal of Cereal Science 56: 396-403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ANGEL, R., TAMIM, N.M., APPLEGATE, T.J., DHANDU, A.S. and ELLESTAD, L.E. (2002) Phytic acid chemistry: influence on phytin-phosphorus availability and phytase efficiency. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 11: 471-480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ANGKANAPORN, K., CHOCT, M., BRYDEN, W.L. and ANNISON, E.F. (1994) Effects of wheat pentosans on endogenous amino acid losses in chickens. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 66: 399-404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BEDFORD, M.R. (2000) Exogenous enzymes in monogastric nutrition-their current value and future benefits. Animal Feed Science and Technology 86: 1-13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BEDFORD, M.R. and COWIESON, A.J. (2012) Exogenous enzymes and their effects on intestinal microbiology. Animal Feed Science and Technology 173: 76-85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BLACK, J.L., HUGHES, R.J., NIELSEN, S.G., TREDEA, A.M., MACALPINE, R. and BAREVELD, V. (2005) The energy value of cereal grains, particularly wheat and sorghum, for poultry. Proceedings of Australian Poultry Science Symposium 17: 21-29.Google Scholar
BYERS, M., MIFLIN, J. and SMITH, S.J. (1983) A quantitative composition of the extraction of protein fractions from wheat grain by different solvents, and of the polypeptide and amino acid composition of the alcohol-soluble proteins. Journal of the Science of the Food and Agriculture 34: 447-462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CARRÉ, B., GOMEZ, J. and CHAGENEAU, A.M. (1995) Contribution of oligosaccharide and polysaccharide digestion, and excreta loss of lactic acid and short chain fatty acids, to dietary metabolisable energy valuses in broiler chickens and adult cockerels. British Poultry Science 36: 611-629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CHOCT, M. (2006) Enzmes for the feed industry: past,present and future. World's Poultry Science Journal 62: 5-16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CHOCT, M. (1997) Feed non-starch polysaccharides: chemical and nutritional significance. Feed Milling International June: 13-26.Google Scholar
CHOCT, M. and KOCHER, A. (2000) Non-starch carbohydrates: Digestion and its secondary effects in monagastrics. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 24: 31-38.Google Scholar
CHOCT, M., HUGHES, R.J., TRIMBLE, R.P., ANGKANAPORN, K. and ANNISON, G. (1995) Non-starch polysaccharide-degrading enzymes increase the performance of broiler chickens fed wheat of low apparent metabolizable energy. Journal of Nutrition 125: 485-492.Google ScholarPubMed
COURTIN, C.M., BROEKAERT, W.F., SWENNEN, K., LESCROART, O., ONAGBESAN, O., BUYSE, J., DECUYPERE, E., VAN DE WIELE, T., MARZORATI, M. and VERSTRAETE, W. (2008) Dietary inclusion of wheat bran arabinoxylooligosaccharides induces beneficial nutritional effects in chickens. Cereal Chemistry 85: 607-613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
COWIESON, A.J. (2010) Strategic selection of exogenous enzymes for corn/soy-based diets. Journal of Poultry Science 47: 1-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
COWIESON, A.J. (2005) Factors that affect the nutritional value of maize for broilers. Animal Feed Science and Technology 119: 293-305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
COWIESON, A.J., ACAMOVIC, T. and BEDFORD, M.R. (2006) Phytic acid and phytase: implications for protein utilisation by poultry. Poultry Science 85: 878-885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
COWIESON, A.J., BEDFORD, M.R. and RAVINDRAN, V. (2010) Interactions between xylanase and glucanase in maize-soy-based diets for broilers. British Poultry Science 51: 246-257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
COWIESON, A.J. and BEDFORD, M.R. (2009) The effect of phytase and carbohydrase on ileal amino acid digestibility in monogastric diets: complilmentary mode of action. World's Poultry Science Journal 65: 609-624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
COWIESON, A.J. and RAVINDRAN, V. (2008) Effect of exogenous enzymes in maize-based diets varying in nutrient density for young broilers: growth performance and digestibility of energy,minerals and amino acids. British Poultry Science 49: 37-44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D' ALFONSO, T.H. (2005) Sources of variances of energy digestibility in corn-soy poultry diets and effect on performance: starch, protein, oil and fibre. Krmiva 2: 83-86.Google Scholar
DÄNICKE, S., JEROCHA, H., BOÈTTCHERA, W. and SIMON, O. (2000) Interactions between dietary fat type and enzyme supplementation in broiler diets with high pentosan contents: effects on precaecal and total digestibility of fatty acids, metabolizability of gross energy, digesta viscosity and weights of small intestine. Feed Animal Feed Science and Technology 84: 279-294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DAVEBY, D.Y., RAZDAN, A. and ÅMAN, P. (1998) Effect of particle size and enzyme supplementation of diets based on dehulled peas on the nutritive value for broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and Technology 74: 229-239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DEL ALAMO, G.A., VERSTEGEN, M.W.A., DEN HARTOG, L.A., PEREZ, D.E., AYALA, P. and VILLAMIDE, M.J. (2009) Wheat starch digestion rate affects broiler perfpormance. Poultry Science 88: 1666-1675.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DONA, A.C., PAGES, G., GILBERT, R.G. and KUCHEL, P.W. (2010) Digestion of starch: In vivo and in vitro kinetic models used to characterise oligosaccharide or glucose release. Carbohydrate Polymers 80: 599-617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DONKOH, A. and ATTOH-KOTOKU, V. (2009) Nutritive value of feedstuffs for poultry in Ghana: chemical composition, apparent metabolizable energy and ileal amino acid digestibility. Livestock Research for Rural Development 21 (3)http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd21/3/donk21032.htm.Google Scholar
DOUCET, F.J., WHITE, G.A., WULFER, F., HILL, S.E. and WISEMAN, J. (2010) Predicting in vivo starch digestibility coefficients in newly weaned piglets from in vitro assessment of diets using multivariate analysis. British Journal of Nutrition 103: 1309-1318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ENGLYST, H.N., KINGMAN, S.M. and CUMMINGS, J.H. (1992) Classification and measurement of nutritionally important starch fractions. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46: S33-50.Google ScholarPubMed
FANG, Z.F., LIU, Z.L., DAI, J.J., QIAN, H.Y., QI, Z.L., MA, L.B. and PENG, J. (2009) Effects of enzyme addition on the nutritive value of broiler diets containing hulled or dehulled chinese double-low rapseed meals. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 93: 467-476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FERNANDEZ, F., SHARMA, R., HINTON, M. and BEDFORD, M.R. (2000) Diet influence the colonisation of Campylobacter jejuni and distribution of mucin carbohydrates in the chick intestinal tract. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 57: 1793-1801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FRANCESCH, M. and GERAERT, P.A. (2009) Enzyme complex containing carbohydrases and phytase improves growth performance and bone mineralisation of broilers fed reduced nutrient corn-soybean -based diets. Poultry Science 88: 1915-1924.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GABRIEL, I., QUILLIEN, L., CASSECUELLE, F., MARGET, P., JUIN, H., LESSIRE, M., SÈVE, B., DUC, G. and BURSTIN, J. (2008) Variation in seed protein digestion of different pea (Pisum sativum L.) genotypes by cecectomized broiler chickens: 2. Relation between in vivo protein digestibility and pea seed characteristics, and identification of resistant pea polypeptides. Livestock Science 113: 262-273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GEHRING, C.K., BEDFORD, M.R., COWIESON, A.J. and DOZIER, W.A. (2012) Effects of corn source on the relationship between in vitro assays and ileal nutrient digestibility. Poultry Science 91: 1908-1914.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HETLAND, H., SVIHUS, B. and KROGDAHL, A. (2003) Effects of oat hulls and wood shavings on digestion in broilers and layers fed diets based on whole or ground wheat. British Poultry Science 44: 275-282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JAMROZ, D., JAKOBSEN, K., BACH KNUDSEN, K.E., WILCZKIEWICZ, A. and ORDA, J. (2002) . Digestibility and energy value of the non-starch polysaccharides in young chickens, ducks and geese, fed diets containing high amounts of barley. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 131: 657-668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JANAS, S., BOUTRY, S., MALUMBA, P., VANDER ELST, L. and BÉRA, F. (2010) Modelling dehydration and quality degradation of maize during fluidized-bed drying. Journal of Food Engineering 100: 527-534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JANKOWSKI, J., JUSKIEWICZ, J., GULEWICZ, K., SLOMINSKI, B.A. and ZDUNCZYK, Z. (2009) The effect of diets containing soybean meal, soybean protein concentrate, and soybean protein isolateof different oligosaccharide content on growth performance and gut function of young turkeys. Poultry Science 88: 2132-2140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JANSSENS, D. and GAETHOFS, B. (2007) Endo-xylanase, a possible way of supplying prebiotic oligosaccharides? Proceedings of the 19th Australian Poultry Science Symposium 19: 165-168.Google Scholar
JENKINS, D.J., THORNE, M.J. and RAO, A.V. (1987) The effect of starch-protein interaction in wheat on the glycemic response and rate of in vitro digestion. American Journal of Clinic Nutrition 45: 946-951.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JIANG, Z.Y., ZHOU, Y.M., LU, F.Z., HAN, Z.Y. and WANG, T. (2008) Effects of different levels of supplementary alpha-amylase on digestive enzyme activities and pancreatic amylase mRNA expression of young broilers. Asia-Australasian Journal of Animal Science 21: 97-102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JIMENEZ-MORENO, E., GONZALEZ-ALVARADO, J.M., GONZALEZ-SERRANO, A., LAZARO, R. and MATEOS, G.G. (2009) Effect of dietary fiber and fat on performance and digestive traits of broilers from one to twenty-one days of age. Poultry Science 88: 2562-2574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JØRGENSEN, H., ZHAO, X.Q., THEIL, P.K. and JAKOBSEN, K. (2008) Effect of graded levels of rapeseed oil in isonitrogenenous diets on the development of gastrointestinal tract, and utilisation of protein, fat and energy in broiler chickens Archives of Animal Nutrition 62: 331-342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JØRGENSEN, H., ZHAO, X.Q., KNUDSEN, K.E.B. and EGGUM, B. (1996) The infuence of dietary fibre souce and level on the development of gastrointestinal tract, digestibility and energy metabolism in broiler chickens. British Journal of Nutrition 75: 379-395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
KLASING, K.C. (2007) Nutrition and the immune system. British Poultry Science 48: 525-537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KOCHER, A., CHOCT, M., PORTER, M. and BROZ, J. (2000) The effects of enzyme addition to broiler diets containing high concentrations of canola or sunflower meal. Poultry Science 79: 1767-1774.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LIU, N., RU, Y.J., WANG, J.P. and XU, T.S. (2010) Effect of dietary sodium phytate and microbial phytase on the lipase activity and lipid metabolism of broiler chickens. British Journal of Nutrition 103: 862-868.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LOSADA, B., GARCÍA-REBOLLAR, P., ÁLVAREZ, C., CACHALDORA, P., IBÁÑEZ, M.A., MÉNDEZ, J. and DE BLAS, J.C. (2010) The prediction of apparent metabolisable energy content of oil seeds and oil seed by-products for poultry from its chemical components, in vitro analysis or near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Animal Feed Science and Technology 160: 62-72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MATEOS, G.G., JIMÉNEZ-MORENO, E., SERRANO, M.P. and LÁZARO, R.P. (2012) Poultry response to high levels of dietary fiber sources varying in physical and chemical characteristics. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 21: 156-174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MATEOS, G.G. and SELL, J.L. (1981) Metabolizable energy of supplementalb fat as related to dietary fat level and methods of estimation. Poultry Science 60: 1509-1515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MENG, X. and SLOMINSKI, B.A. (2005) Nutritive values of corn, soybean meal, canola meal, and peas for broiler chickens as affected by a multicarbohydrase preparation of cell wall degrading enzymes. Poultry Science 84: 1242-1251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MOOSAVI, M., ESLAMI, M., CHAJI, M. and BOUJARPOUR, M. (2011) Economic value of diets with different levels of energy and protein with constant ratio on broiler chcikens. Journal of Animal and Veterrinary Advances 10: 709-711.Google Scholar
MOORE, S.M., STALDER, K.J., BEITZ, D.C., STAHL, C.H., FITHIAN, W.A. and BREGENDAHL, K. (2008) The Correlation of Chemical and Physical Corn Kernel Traits with Production Performance in Broiler Chickens and Laying Hens. Poultry Science 87: 665-676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MUSHTAQ, T., SARWAR, M., AHMAD, G., MIRZA, M.A., AHMAD, T., MOREEN, U., MUSHTAQ, M.M.H. and KAMRAN, Z. (2009) Influence of sunflower meal based diets supplemented with exogenous enzyme and digestible lysine on performance, digestibility and carcass of broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and Technology 149: 275-286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PETTERSSON, D. and AMAN, P. (1989) Enzyme supplementation of a poultry diet containing rye and wheat. British Journal of Nutrition 62: 139-149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
RAVINDRAN, V. and BRYDEN, W.L. (1999) Amino acid availability in poultry:in vitro and in vivo measurements. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50: 889-908.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RAVINDRAN, V., HEW, L.I., RAVINDRAN, G. and BRYDEN, W.L. (2005) Apparent ileal digestibility of amino acids in dietary ingredients for broiler chickens. Animal Science 81: 85-97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ROSEN, G.D. (2010) Holo-analysis of the efficiency of exogenous enzyme performance in fam animal nutrition, in: BEDFORD, M.R. & PARTRIGE, G.G. (Eds) Enzymes in Farm Animal Nutrition, pp. 273-303 (London, CAB International).Google Scholar
RUBIO, L.A. and CLEMENTE, A. (2010) Molecular size distribution affects portal absorption rate of casein amino acids in rats. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 94: E145-E153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SAUVANT, D., PEREZ, J.M. and TRAN, G. (2004) in: SAUVANT, D., PEREZ, J.M. & TRAN, G. (Eds) Tables of composition and nutritional value of feed materials pp. 13-302 (Paris, Wageningen Academic).Google Scholar
SELLE, P.H. and RAVINDRAN, V. (2007) Microbial phytase in poultry nutrition. Animal Feed Science and Technology 135: 1-41.Google Scholar
SINGH, P.K. (2008) Significance of phytic acid and supplemental phytase in chicken nutrition: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal 64: 557-580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SLOMINSKI, B.A. (2011) Recent advances in research on enzymes for poultry diets. Poultry Science 90: 2013-2023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SLOMINSKI, B.A., MENG, X., CAMPBELL, L.D., GUENTER, W. and JONES, O. (2006) The use of enzyme technology for improved energy utilisation from full-fat oilseeds. Part II: flaxseed. Poultry Science 85: 1031-1037.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SMINK, W., GERRITS, W.J.J., HOVENIER, R., GEELEN, M.J.H., LOBEE, H.W.J., VERSTEGEN, M.W.A. and BEYNEN, A.C. (2008) Fatty acid digestion and deposition in broiler chickens fed diets containing either native or randomized palm oil. Poultry Science 87: 506-513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SOPADE, P.A. and GIDLEY, M.J. (2009) A rapid in-vitro digestibility assay based on glucometry for investigating kinetics of starch digestion. Starch/ Stärke 61: 245-255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SVIHUS, B. (2011) Limitations to wheat starch digestion in growing broiler chickens: a brief review. Animal Production Science 51: 583-589.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SVIHUS, B., UHLEN, A.K. and HARSTAD, O.M. (2005) Effect of starch granule structure, associated components and processing on nutritive value of cereal starch: A review. Animal Feed Science and Technology 122: 303-320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
THOMAS, D.V., RAVINDRAN, V. and RAVINDRAN, G. (2008) Nutrient digestibility and energy utilisation of diets based on wheat, sorghum or maize by the newly hatch broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 49: 429-435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
THOMPSON, L.U. and YOON, J.H. (1984) Starch digestibility as affected by polyphenols and phytic acid. Journal of Food Science 49: 1228-1229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
THORNE, M.J., THOMPSON, L.U. and JENKINS, D.J.A. (1983) Factors affecting starch digestibility and the glycemic response with special reference to legumes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 38: 481-488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VAHJEN, W., GLÄSER, K., SCHÄFER, K. and SIMON, O. (1998) Influence of xylanase-supplemented feed on the development of selected bacterial groups in the intestinal tract of broiler chicks. Journal of Agricultural Science 130: 489-500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WALL, J.S. and PAULIS, J.W. (1983) Corn and sorghum grain proteins, in: KOLAR, C.W., RICHET, S.H., DECKER, C.D. & STEINKE, F.H. (Eds) Advance in cereal science and technology pp. 135-219 (Madison, American Association of Cereal Chemists).Google Scholar
WEURDING, R.E., ENTING, H. and VERSTEGEN, M.W.A. (2003) The effect of site of starch digestion on performance of broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and Technology 110: 175-184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WEURDING, R.E., VELDMAN, A., VEEN, W.A.G., VAN DER AAR, P.J. and VERSTEGEN, M.W.A. (2001) In vitro starch digestion correlates well with rate and extent of starch digestion in broiler chickens. The Journal of Nutrition 131: 2336-2342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WHITE, G.A., DOUCET, F.G., HILL, S.E. and WISEMAN, J. (2008) Physicochemical properties and nutritional quality of raw cereals for newly weaned piglets. Animal 2: 867-878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WIDYARATNE, G.P. and DREW, M.D. (2011) Effects of protein level and digestibility on the growth and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens1. Poultry Science 90: 595-603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WISEMAN, J. (2006) Variations in starch digestibility in non-ruminants. Animal Feed Science and Technology 130: 66-77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WISEMAN, J., EDMUNDA, B.K. and SHEPPERSON, N. (1992) The apparent metabolisable energy of sunflower oil and sunflower acid oil for broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and Technology 36: 41-51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WISEMAN, J. and SALVADOR, F. (1991) The influence of free fatty acid content and degree of saturation on the apparent metabolizable energy value of fats fed to broilers. Poultry Science 70: 573-582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WOLF, W.J. (1970) Soybean proteins: their functional, chemical, and physical properties. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 18: 969-976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WONG, J.H., MARX, D.B., WILSON, J.D., BUCHANAN, B.B., LEMAUX, P.G. and PEDERSEN, J.F. (2010) Principal component analysis and biochemical characterisation of protein and starch reveal primary targets for improving sorghum grain. Plant Science 179: 598-611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WOOLNOUGH, J.W., MONRO, J.A., BRENNAN, C.S. and BIRD, A.R. (2008) Simulating human carbohydrate digestion in vitro: a review of methods and the need for standardisation. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 43: 2245-2256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WOYENGO, T.A. and NYACHOTI, C.M. (2011) Review: Supplementation of phytase and carbohydrases to diets for poultry. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 91: 1-16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
YU, S., COWIESON, A., GILBERT, C., PLUMSTEAD, P. and DALSGAARD, S. (2012) Interactions of phytate and myo-inositol phosphate esters (IP1-5) including IP5 isomers with dietary protein and iron and inhibition of pepsin Journal of Animal Science 90: 1824-1832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ZANELLA, I., SAKOMURA, N., SILVERSIDES, F., FIQUEIRDO, A. and PACK, M. (1999) Effect of enzyme supplementation of broiler diets based on corn and soybeans. Poultry Science 78: 561-568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ZELENKA, J. and ČEREŠŇAKOVÁ, Z. (2005) Effect of age on digestibility of starch in chickens with different growth rate. Czech Journal of Animal Science 50: 411-415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar