In this special article we describe a number of reporting guidelines endorsed by the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) group for a range of research designs that commonly appear in scientific journals: systematic reviews, clinical trials with and without randomisation, observational studies, n-of-1 (or single-case experimental design) trials, and diagnostic studies. We also consider reporting guidelines for studies using qualitative methodology. In addition to reporting guidelines, we present method quality rating scales, which aim to measure risk of bias that threatens the internal validity of a study. Advantages of reporting guidelines and method quality rating scales for authors include the provision of a structure by which to improve the clarity and transparency of report writing; for reviewers and readers advantages include a method by which to critically appraise an article. Brain Impairment endorses these reporting guidelines and applies them within the review process for submissions to the journal.

rimary Objectives: To examine the HADS structure in TBI, using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and investigate the effects of TBI severity, Gender, and Age on factor scores. Methods and Procedures: HADS data from 186 TBI patients in a population study in Tasmania were subjected to EFA. HADS data from a second sample of 185 TBI participants in the same study underwent CFA. One-month follow-up data were used, allowing inclusion of severe TBI patients while still being early post-injury. Factor loadings were used to investigate the effects of demographic and clinical variables at 2 weeks post-injury. Results: While EFA suggested 2-factor (anxiety, depression) and 3-factor (anxiety, psychomotor, depression) structures provided adequate descriptions, CFA strongly supported the 3-factor model. Using this model, significant effects of TBI severity were noted on Psychomotor and Depression scores at 2 weeks post-injury. Males reported significantly fewer symptoms on all 3 factors, as did younger participants. Conclusions: CFA indicates that a 3-factor model provides the best fit for HADS data in TBI. One factor, Psychomotor, has been relatively neglected in the literature, and the current findings suggest its assessment and rehabilitation should receive more attention.

This article considers 10 of the most important developments in neuropsychological rehabilitation over the past 5 years. While several leaders in the field were contacted to discover what they considered to be the most important developments, the selection discussed here is the author's alone and is, therefore, a personal view. Included are: computational models; support for people with dementia; new assessment procedures; new treatment strategies for cognitive, emotional and psychosocial problems; new theoretical models to improve our understanding of the consequences of brain injury; and recognition of the need to find new ways to evaluate the efficacy of rehabilitation. The final section of the article considers possible future developments in rehabilitation, including stronger links with basic neuro-science; better use of imaging procedures; collaboration with pharmaceutical companies; better evaluation of our programs; and the need to educate researchers and practitioners as to the meaning of rehabilitation.

Apathy is a decrease in behavioural, cognitive and emotional components of goal-directed behaviour. Clinically, it is characterised by diminished initiation, reduced concern, and decreased activity. Apathy is a common occurrence following traumatic brain injury (TBI), occurring in around 60% of people. Consequences are widespread, negatively impacting independence, social integration, rehabilitation outcome, vocational outcome, coping and caregiver burden. The current knowledge base on apathy following TBI is presented, with implications for clinical practice. This includes a review of clinical presentations, neuroanatomical and neurochemical substrates associated with apathy, and differential diagnoses. Instruments to measure apathy are presented, highlighting those with demonstrated reliability and validity for the TBI population. Current evidence for pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods of treatment is described, with a model for non-pharmacological interventions provided and discussion of challenges faced by clinicians when treating the patient with apathy. In the TBI arena, greater understanding of apathy and methods of treatment is pivotal given the frequency of occurrence and widespread negative consequences.

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is increasingly used in clinical practice to manage anxiety conditions. This psychotherapeutic approach focuses on the following: (1) acceptance of an individual's experience of the spectrum of psychological and emotional states, (2) choosing valued direction for the individual's life, and (3) commitment to action that leads the individual in the direction of those values. This article presents an empirical review of ACT for treatment of anxiety in two parts. In the first part we systematically review the literature for studies examining ACT for anxiety management in the general population with anxiety problems. In the second part, we discuss applicability of acceptance-based approaches for a health population in which these techniques may have applicability, that is, for people with acquired brain injury (ABI). Electronic searches for the review were conducted on PsycINFO and Medline. Inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) used an ACT intervention study, (2) the target of the intervention was an anxiety disorder or anxiety symptomatology, (3) the intervention used a randomised controlled trial (RCT) or single case experimental design (SCED) methodology, and (4) the paper was available in English. Studies were rated for methodological quality using standardised assessment procedures. Four RCTs provided support for ACT for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), maths anxiety, trichotillomania (TTM), and mixed anxiety and depression. Three SCED trials scoring in the high range on the scale of methodological quality revealed some support for ACT for managing TTM, skin picking, and OCD. Although no studies were identified that investigated ACT for managing anxiety in people with ABI, the review highlights issues for consideration when applying ACT in this population.

The Australian community is ageing; over the next 40 years, our population over the age of 65 years will double to around 23%, and this considerable increase in older adults means an increasing number of people will be at risk of sustaining trauma through falls or road traffic accidents. In contrast to the increasingly well-documented outcome literature on younger adults, very few studies have focused on older adults. Instead of assuming that outcomes posttraumatic brain injury (post-TBI) will follow similar patterns as in younger samples, there are several reasons to investigate older age recovery separately, and these issues will be discussed by reviewing some of the primary characteristics of older adults who experience traumatic brain injury.

Introduction: Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a progressive neurode-generative brain disease characterised clinically by abnormalities in behaviour, cognition and language. Two subgroups, behavioural-variant FTD (bvFTD) and semantic dementia (SD), also show impaired emotion recognition particularly for negative emotions. This deficit has been demonstrated using visual stimuli such as facial expressions. Whether recognition of emotions conveyed through other modalities — for example, music — is also impaired has not been investigated. Methods: Patients with bvFTD, SD and Alzheimer's disease (AD), as well as healthy age-matched controls, labeled tunes according to the emotion conveyed (happy, sad, peaceful or scary). In addition, each tune was also rated along two orthogonal emotional dimensions: valence (pleasant/unpleasant) and arousal (stimulating/relaxing). Participants also undertook a facial emotion recognition test and other cognitive tests. Integrity of basic music detection (tone, tempo) was also examined. Results: Patient groups were matched for disease severity. Overall, patients did not differ from controls with regard to basic music processing or for the recognition of facial expressions. Ratings of valence and arousal were similar across groups. In contrast, SD patients were selectively impaired at recognising music conveying negative emotions (sad and scary). Patients with bvFTD did not differ from controls. Conclusion: Recognition of emotions in music appears to be selectively affected in some FTD subgroups more than others, a disturbance of emotion detection which appears to be modality specific. This finding suggests dissociation in the neural networks necessary for the processing of emotions depending on modality.