Introduction
The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the operational landscape of industries across the globe (Donthu & Gustafsson, Reference Donthu and Gustafsson2020; Seetharaman, Reference Seetharaman2020; Shafi, Liu, & Ren, Reference Shafi, Liu and Ren2020; Wu et al., Reference Wu, Yu, W, Wan, Wang and Lu2020). The resultant protracted crisis gave rise to unforeseen problems to the mining, oil, and gas (MOG) sectors (Asare et al., Reference Asare, Thomas, Affandi, Schammer, Harris, Kwasnicka and Robinso2022; Djamalus, Utomo, Djaj, & Nasri, Reference Djamalus, Utomo, Djaj and Nasri2021; Jowitt, Reference Jowitt2020; Miller, Reference Miller2020). Due to their complexity and reliance on global supply chains, these industries were heavily impacted (Atif, Cawood, & Mhaboob, Reference Atif, Cawood and Mhaboob2020; Galas et al., Reference Galas, Kot-Niewiadom, Czerw, Simić, Tost, Wårell and Gałaś2021; Iyke, Reference Iyke2020, Reference Iyke2020; Olujobi, Olarinde, & Okorie, Reference Olujobi, Olarinde, Y and Okorie2022). Operational leaders, serving as key agents within their organizations, observed significant shifts in their roles and behaviors as the crisis unfolded (Heyden, Wilden, & Wise, Reference Heyden, Wilden and Wise2020; Kim, Lee, Gao, & Johnson, Reference Kim, Lee, Gao and Johnson2021; Rezvani & Hudson, Reference Rezvani and Hudson2021; Stoker, Garretsen, & Soudis, Reference Stoker, Garretsen and Soudis2019). Traditionally, these leaders served as intermediaries between upper-level leadership and bottom-level leadership (Hayes, Reference Hayes2012; Nealey & Fiedler, Reference Nealey and Fiedler1968; Rezvani & Hudson, Reference Rezvani and Hudson2016, Reference Rezvani and Hudson2021). Their usual area of focus includes operational efficiency, risk management strategies, and workforce management (Bhattacharya & Tamg, Reference Bhattacharya and Tamg2013; Burgess, Reference Burgess2013; Li, Zhang, Hua, & Wang, Reference Li, Zhang, Hua and Wang2021; Van Rensburg, Davis, & Venter, Reference Van Rensburg, Davis and Venter2014). However, the sustained crisis forced them to shift their roles and behaviours to align with the organisation’s changing priorities and crisis strategies (Bajaba, Bajaba, Algarni, Basahal, & Basahel, Reference Bajaba, Bajaba, Algarni, Basahal and Basahel2021; Mathende & Karim, Reference Mathende and Karim2022; Ologun & Ilaboya, Reference Ologun and Ilaboya2022; Terblanche, Reference Terblanche2022).
The prolonged COVID-19 crisis has highlighted the critical importance of effective leadership in crisis management (Caringgal-go, Teng-Calleja, Franco, & Manaois, Reference Caringgal-go, Teng-Calleja, Franco and Manaois2021; Dirani et al., Reference Dirani, Abadi, Alizadeth, Barhate, Garza, Gunasekara and Majzun2020; Kaul, Shah, & El-Serag, Reference Kaul, Shah and El-Serag2020; Wu, Shao, Neman, & Schwarz, Reference Wu, Shao, Neman and Schwarz2021). Operational leaders were required to implement health protocols, ensure operational continuity as well as promote employee wellbeing and resilience during such unprecedented disruptions (Ali & Anwar, Reference Ali and Anwar2021; Shukla, Sufi, Joshi, & Sujatha, Reference Shukla, Sufi, Joshi and Sujatha2022; Terblanche, Reference Terblanche2022). Research shows that the effectiveness of these leaders during the crisis has been closely linked to their ability to foster collaboration, communicate transparently, and empower their teams (Alakiri & Al-abed, Reference Alakiri and Al-abed2021; Dandalt, Reference Dandalt2021; Heyden et al., Reference Heyden, Wilden and Wise2020; Machado, Bernardes, & Vaz, Reference Machado, Bernardes and Vaz2022). This shift not only facilitated better decision-making but has also enhanced organisational resilience and promote employee wellbeing during the crisis (Kaul et al., Reference Kaul, Shah and El-Serag2020; Machado et al., Reference Machado, Bernardes and Vaz2022; Mackay, Gilbert, Fournier, Dextras-Gauthier, & Boucher, Reference Mackay, Gilbert, Fournier, Dextras-Gauthier and Boucher2022; Reddy & Gupta, Reference Reddy and Gupta2020).
Dasborough and Scandura (Reference Dasborough and Scandura2022) highlight changes to both management by delegation and micromanagement with attention to balance control and empathy during the sustained COVID-19 pandemic. This perspective was echoed by other researchers who noted that the shift to remote work led leaders to exercise less control and delegate more (Stoker, Garretsen, & Lammers, Reference Stoker, Garretsen and Lammers2022). They also found that emotional intelligence became crucial for leaders to handle their evolving roles, including self-perception, self-expression, interpersonal relationships, decision-making, and stress management (Wittmer & Hopkins, Reference Wittmer and Hopkins2022).
Despite the growing body of literature on crisis management and leadership during the protracted COVID-19 pandemic (Haslam, Steffens, Reicher, & Bentley, Reference Haslam, Steffens, Reicher and Bentley2021; Kaul et al., Reference Kaul, Shah and El-Serag2020; Wodak, Reference Wodak2021; Wu et al., Reference Wu, Shao, Neman and Schwarz2021), the roles and behaviours changes in operational leadership in the MOG industries have not been well-identified. Most of the studies conducted during the sustained COVID-19 crisis focused on the healthcare or general organisational contexts (Blaszczyk, Popovic, Zajdel, & Zajdel, Reference Blaszczyk, Popovic, Zajdel and Zajdel2023; Dandalt, Reference Dandalt2021; Kekec, Bilim, & Ghiloufi, Reference Kekec, Bilim and Ghiloufi2022; Li et al., Reference Li, Zhang, Hua and Wang2021). As a result, there is a need for sector-specific insights to shape best practices in crisis management for critical industries such as MOG sectors. In addition, there is a paucity of research that examines this emerging topic in a way that considers COVID-19 crisis four stages (the pre-COVID-19 period, the initial outbreak, the peak of the pandemic and the recovery phase) as shown in Table 1. The articles of Wittmer and Hopkins (Reference Wittmer and Hopkins2022), Dasborough and Scandura (Reference Dasborough and Scandura2022), Eichenauer, Ryan and Alanis (Reference Eichenauer, Ryan and Alanis2022), and Stoker et al. (Reference Stoker, Garretsen and Lammers2022) highlighted the adaptive roles of leaders during the pandemic. However, these studies were conducted during the initial stages of the pandemic and therefore, their findings cannot be generalised.
Aligning the stages of COVID-19 with crisis phases
The COVID-19 pandemic affected countries differently, with restrictions varying across and within nations. For instance, Western Australia imposed hard border closures, while Victoria and New South Wales opted for softer measures. As a result, timelines vary across studies. The timelines shown in Table 1 were based on data from the Australian Government Department of Health. We acknowledged differences arise due to factors like national policies, socio-economic conditions and geographic location.
While the prolonged COVID-19 crisis might be over, the next crisis is just around the corner due to a number of global risks. Pfefferbaum and North (Reference Pfefferbaum and North2020) revealed the long-term mental health impacts of COVID-19 crisis, which they argued could make organisations more vulnerable to future crises. In addition, historical patterns indicate that pandemics are recurrent, with experts predicting emergence of new infectious diseases (Morens & Fauci, Reference Morens and Fauci2020; Olshaker & Osterholm, Reference Olshaker and Osterholm2017). Furthermore, the economic instability, geopolitical tensions, and climate change posed significant threats to worldwide industries (O’Brien & Leichenko, Reference O’Brien and Leichenko2007; Schellnhuber, Reference Schellnhuber2010). Cybersecurity risks and technological disruptions further amplify the potential for future crises (Bostrom, Reference Bostrom2014). Therefore, MOG companies must remain vigilant and prepared because the next crisis is not a question of ‘if’, but ‘when’ (Pearson & Mitroff, Reference Pearson and Mitroff2019).
Considering the potential of the future crises and existing knowledge gap, understanding the operational leadership dynamics and adaptive roles and behaviours is vital for businesses continuity and resilience as well as employee wellbeing. Furthermore, the findings will enhance ACMT by examining how operational leadership in the Australian MOG industries rapidly adapted their roles and behaviours when the prolonged COVID-19 crisis progressed throughout four stages.
Along with enriching ACMT, our study also extends Dasborough and Scandura’s (Reference Dasborough and Scandura2022) research by highlighting swift role changes and adaptations made by operational leaders during the prolonged pandemic period. Furthermore, it builds on the work of Wittmer and Hopkins (Reference Wittmer and Hopkins2022) which offered empirical evidence and realistic examples the influence of emotional intelligence on remote leadership. In addition, we expand on the research of Stoker et al. (Reference Stoker, Garretsen and Lammers2022) by highlighting the broader range of responsibilities shouldered by operational leaders in response to the crisis, particularly in the context of working from home. Moreover, in contrast to Eichenauer et al. (Reference Eichenauer, Ryan and Alanis2022), we explore not only employee perceptions of supervisor leadership practices and gender differences but also the distinct challenges that operational leaders encounter during the different COVID-19 stages.
Literature review
Operational leaders’ responsibilities during COVID-19
Crisis management literature emphasises the value of being flexible and continuously learning during the time of crisis (Bundy, Pfarret, Short, & Coombs, Reference Bundy, Pfarret, Short and Coombs2017; James, Wooten, & Dushek, Reference James, Wooten and Dushek2011). The ability to adapt to changing conditions is highlighted as a key characteristic of resilient high-reliability organisations by Weick and Sutchliffe (Reference Weick and Sutchliffe2015). Boin and Mcconnel (Reference Boin and Mcconnel2007) argue for the necessity of an ACMT approach, enabling organisations to learn and adapt during times of crisis. Mitroff (Reference Mitroff2004) stresses the critical role of leadership and the need for a proactive and adaptive mindset.
Operational leadership undoubtedly influences organisations in crisis situations through resiliency building, protection of organisation (business continuity), and employee wellbeing (Demiroz & Kapucu, Reference Demiroz and Kapucu2012; Sadiq, Kapucu, & Hu, Reference Sadiq, Kapucu and Hu2020; Stern, Reference Stern2013; Zhuravsky, Reference Zhuravsky2015). For instance, research that was conducted by Haddon, Loughlin and Mcnally (Reference Haddon, Loughlin and Mcnally2015) and Walker, Earnhardt, Newcomer, Marrio and Tomlinson (Reference Walker, Earnhardt, Newcomer, Marrio and Tomlinson2016) crystallised the essentiality of the leadership positions to the success of crisis management during the 2008 financial crisis (Haddon et al., Reference Haddon, Loughlin and Mcnally2015; Walker et al., Reference Walker, Earnhardt, Newcomer, Marrio and Tomlinson2016). Similar studies conducted amidst COVID-19 crisis also underscored the pivotal roles operational leaders played in the navigating the rapidly changing situation and subsequently managing complex intricacies of the crisis (Caringgal-go et al., Reference Caringgal-go, Teng-Calleja, Franco and Manaois2021; Kaul et al., Reference Kaul, Shah and El-Serag2020; Kuckertz et al., Reference Kuckertz, Brandle, Gaudig, Hinderer, Reyes, Prochotta and Berger2020; Mather, Reference Mather2020; Spinell & Pellino, Reference Spinell and Pellino2020). Consequently, it is argued that the leaders’ actions and behaviours can either aggravate or alleviate the impacts of crises on both individuals and organisations (Boin, Reference Boin2003).
The modern theory of management leadership advocates for a reversal of the conventional crisis management hierarchy, with executives stepping back and operational leaders and lower-level leaders assuming forefront roles (Avolio, Luthans, & Walumbwa, Reference Avolio, Luthans and Walumbwa2004; Horner, Reference Horner1997), highlighting the adaptable and dynamicity of leadership (Bajaba et al., Reference Bajaba, Bajaba, Algarni, Basahal and Basahel2021; Heifetz, Grashow & Linksy, Reference Heifetz, Grashow and Linksy2009). For example, studies by Giousmpasoglou et al. (Reference Giousmpasoglou, Marinakou and Zopiatis2021) and Heyden et al. (Reference Heyden, Wilden and Wise2020) illustrate how operational leaders were at the forefront of COVID-19 crisis and acted as gents for change, emphasising their roles in promoting innovativeness and resilience within the organisations. They devised novel methods for captivation and motivation of employees, while also demonstrating the capability of being flexible and adaptable to cope with the worst of times.
Adaptability was also observed when operational leaders departed from their usual responsibilities to respond, ensure smooth employee logistics and business continuity as well as promote employee wellbeing during the pandemic period (Bajaba et al., Reference Bajaba, Bajaba, Algarni, Basahal and Basahel2021, Blaszczyk et al., Reference Blaszczyk, Popovic, Zajdel and Zajdel2023; Terblanche, Reference Terblanche2022). Another evidence was operational engaged in sense-making to assess the crisis severity (Crayne & Medeiros, Reference Crayne and Medeiros2021; Jong, Reference Jong2017; Sobral, Carvalho, Łagowska, & Grobman, Reference Sobral, Carvalho, Łagowska and Grobman2020). They responded by making decisions based on environmental scanning, aiming to guide their organisations through crises (Alkharabsheh, Ahmad, & Kharabsheh, Reference Alkharabsheh, Ahmad and Kharabsheh2014; Haddon et al., Reference Haddon, Loughlin and Mcnally2015; Sadiq et al., Reference Sadiq, Kapucu and Hu2020).
Numerous studies during the sustained COVID-19 crisis have also demonstrated the perspective of leadership as a dynamic and adaptable process rather than a rigid collection of traits or behaviours (Terblanche, Reference Terblanche2022; Garretsen, Stoker, Soudis, & Wendt, Reference Garretsen, Stoker, Soudis and Wendt2022; Vinberg & Danielsson, Reference Vinberg and Danielsson2021). Operational leaders, making competent decisions, which are reinforced by information processing theory, adapt their internal structures to the COVID-19 crisis as illustrated by Phillips, Roehrich and Kapletia (Reference Phillips, Roehrich and Kapletia2023) article.
As such, competent skills such as decision-making, adaptability, problem-solving, effective communication networks, and building strong relationships between leaders and followers were highlighted as crucial in operational leadership during the crises (Chanana, Reference Chanana2021; Forster & Heinzel, Reference Forster and Heinzel2021; Haddon et al., Reference Haddon, Loughlin and Mcnally2015; Littlefield & Quenette, Reference Littlefield and Quenette2007; Nyenswah, Engineer, & Peter, Reference Nyenswah, Engineer and Peter2016). Such an adaptation of new responsibilities during the COVID-19 increased workload and brought along a myriad of challenges such as family responsibilities and dynamic interplay of technological, physical, social, and economic influences (Bajaba et al., Reference Bajaba, Bajaba, Algarni, Basahal and Basahel2021, Dale Oen et al., Reference Dale Oen, Svihus, Solberg, Harris and Eid2022; Santra & Alat, Reference Santra and Alat2022).
While the adaptability of leaders’ roles and behaviours has been explored in the literature, there is a lack of research in the MOG sectors. Therefore, conducting this study is crucial to bridge the knowledge gap and enhance ACMT with real-world data. Through the application of ACMT, we explore how operational leaders in the Australian resources sector swiftly adjusted and effectively reacted to the pandemic by changing their roles and behaviours as the crisis moved from one stage to another (pre-COVID-19, initial stage, peak of the pandemic, and recovery stage).
Adaptive Crisis Management Theory
ACMT is a contemporary theory that emphasises flexibility, strategic adaptability, and responsiveness during times of crisis (Uy et al., Reference Uy, Kilag, Abendan, Macapobre, Canizares and Yray2023). Its draws on principles of complexity theory, system thinking, and adaptive leadership to better understand ‘the dynamics of leadership in times of crisis’ (Uy et al., Reference Uy, Kilag, Abendan, Macapobre, Canizares and Yray2023). The theory recognises that crises are characterised by uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity, requiring adaptive responses that transcend pre-determined plans or strategies (Comfort, Reference Comfort2007, Weick and Sutcliffe, 2015). The proponents of ACMT critique traditional crisis management approaches for being static and hierarchical, and not suitable for modern complex crises (Mitroff, Reference Mitroff2004; Pearson & Clair, Reference Pearson and Clair1998; Uy et al., Reference Uy, Kilag, Abendan, Macapobre, Canizares and Yray2023).
The ACMT is useful during adaptive and extreme events (Hannah, Uhl-bien, Avolio, & Cavarretta, Reference Hannah, Uhl-bien, Avolio and Cavarretta2009; Heifetz & Linksy, Reference Heifetz and Linksy2011). Adaptive events bring forth new challenges that cannot be addressed using existing knowledge, in contrast to technical challenges (Northouse, Reference Northouse2021). Extreme contexts impose overwhelming threats on organisational resources, both mentally and physically (Hannah et al., Reference Hannah, Uhl-bien, Avolio and Cavarretta2009; Santra & Alat, Reference Santra and Alat2022). The significant impacts of COVID-19 crisis on Australian MOG industries were both adaptiveand extreme (Asare, Robinson, Powell, & Kwasnicka, Reference Asare, Robinson, Powell and Kwasnicka2023; Basseal et al., Reference Basseal, Bennett, Collignon, Currie, Durrheim, Leask and Marais2023; Jowitt, Reference Jowitt2020). The pandemic caused major disruptions to operating models of almost all the companies that engaged in these industries (Asare et al., Reference Asare, Thomas, Affandi, Schammer, Brown, Pilbeam and Powell2021; Galas et al., Reference Galas, Kot-Niewiadom, Czerw, Simić, Tost, Wårell and Gałaś2021; Sattarvand, Reference Sattarvand2021).
The concept of ACMT underscores the important of gathering information and analysing – sense-making (Hale, Dulek, & Hale, Reference Hale, Dulek and Hale2005), rapid decision-making (Boin, Reference Boin2003), adjusting of strategies and actions as situation evolved (Eriksson & Mcconnell, Reference Eriksson and Mcconnell2011; Somers, Reference Somers2009), continue learning and adaptation (Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, Reference Teece, Pisano and Shuen1997), and effective communication and collaboration with stakeholders (Ulmer, Sellnow, & Seeger, Reference Ulmer, Sellnow and Seeger2010). Such principles are key for understanding the adaptive strategies of leaders during the prolong COVID-19 crisis in Australian resources industry (Bajaba et al., Reference Bajaba, Bajaba, Algarni, Basahal and Basahel2021; Terblanche, Reference Terblanche2022).
The COVID-19 crisis demanded rapid change in operational leaders’ roles and behaviours rather than relying solely on technical solutions (Wu et al., Reference Wu, Shao, Neman and Schwarz2021). However, little evidence exists on how operational leaders in MOG industries rapidly adapt their roles and behaviours to cope with multiple unprecedent challenges presented by the sustained COVID-19 crisis. Therefore, this study seeks to understand the shifts in roles and behaviours of operational leaders as the pandemic progressed from pre-COVID-19 stage to recovery stage. Understanding these changes will provide insight into the operational leaders’ flexibility, strategic adaptability, and responsiveness which are key components of ACMT (Uy et al., Reference Uy, Kilag, Abendan, Macapobre, Canizares and Yray2023).
Method
Research design
This research adopted phenomenology, a philosophical method that focuses on investigating subjective experiences and revealing hidden meanings (Giorgi, Reference Giorgi2009). This phenomenology was appropriate as it provides a methodological lens through which to understand participants’ lived experiences, perceptions, and meanings related to the roles and behaviours of operational leadership in the Australian resources industry during the COVID-19 crisis (NeuBauer, Witkop, & Varpio, Reference NeuBauer, Witkop and Varpio2019).
Sample
The participants for this study were identified using purposeful sampling (Fusch & Ness, Reference Fusch and Ness2015). The technique helps to select participants so that there would be diversity based on experiences and perceptions concerning operations during COVID-19 (Palinkas et al., Reference Palinkas, Horwitz, Green, Wisdom, Duan and Hoagwood2015). The inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria were created to ensure a relevant and representative sample for the study (Campbell et al., Reference Campbell, Greenwood, Prior, Shearer, Walkem, Young and Walker2020). Participants needed to have an operational role during the COVID-19 pandemic, which could include being general managers and managers. The participants who were purposely identified received invitations through word of mouth and private messages on social media.
The sample size for this research was determined using the principle of data saturation, whereby the data collection continues until no new themes or insights emerge from the interviews (Fusch & Ness, Reference Fusch and Ness2015). We sampled 32 operational leaders across different MOG companies that operate in Australia as shown in Table 2. The demographic distribution of participants shown in Table 2 illustrated that 26 of 32 interviewed participants were male. The Western Australia minerals industry was unsurprisingly heavily represented among the participants as this state has the highest number of the mining-related activities.
Sociodemographic characteristics of participants (N = 32)
Data collection
Data was collected through qualitative methods, namely in-depth semi-structured interviews. We used semi-structured interviews because they offer flexibility while ensuring that key topics and questions related to the roles and behaviours of operational leaders were covered (Blee & Taylor, Reference Blee and Taylor2002). The interviews were conducted using video conferencing tools on virtual platforms, adhering to COVID-19 restrictions. Given that many resource sector operations were situated in remote areas, necessitating costly travel and accommodation, this approach helped mitigate expenses.
With the participants’ consent, interviews were audio-recorded, each spanning approximately 45 to 60 minutes in duration. The interview guide includes questions about the role responsibilities and behaviours of operational leaders at different stages of the pandemic. Participants were asked about their roles before the pandemic, at the initial stages of the pandemic, further into the pandemic, and emerging out of the pandemic. They were also asked to describe the impacts of changing job demands on their behaviours. The collection of data started on June 2023 and finished in August 2023.
Data analysis
The data were analysed using six steps of thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, Reference Braun and Clarke2006). The 32 audio recordings were transcribed verbatim into word document format by leading author and transcripts imported into qualitative data analysis software (NVivo 12 Plus) for coding and analysis. Following this analytical approach, the first step was familiarisation with the data. We began by immersing ourselves in the data through reading the transcript several times and noting down our thoughts and ideas. This was followed by generating initial codes through sorting out statements that captured phrases, words, and sentences-related wellbeing challenges and coping mechanisms (Braun & Clarke, Reference Braun and Clarke2006). Several codes were generated and reviewed multiple times before we began organising them into potential themes.
Next, we reviewed the generated themes from the codes repeatedly to ensure accurate data representation (Kiger & Varpio, Reference Kiger and Varpio2020). Following this, we consolidated several themes to form several central themes, with each core theme given a definition that captures their fundamental meaning. The findings were validated, and interpretations were ensured through member checking. Finally, the results were presented in a narrative format, supported by direct quotes from participants to illustrate key themes, as shown in the ‘Results’ section.
Trustworthiness
The steps in Table 3 were taken to increase the trustworthiness and reliability of the study.
Criteria for trustworthiness and rigour
Results
The findings highlight the adaptive role played by operational leaders during the protracted COVID-19 crisis. They were able to respond quickly and effectively to changing circumstances, safeguarding employee wellbeing, and maintaining business operations. The findings also point to how leaders changed their roles and behaviours as the crisis moved from one stage to another. Our analysis generated five core themes as shown in Fig. 1 and Table 4, and number of supporting sub-themes as shown in Tables 5–9.
Themes and supporting sub-themes.
Additional quotes of adaptive leaders’ roles and behaviours during COVID-19 crisis
The central theme of operational leaders’ roles and behaviours is supported by number of sub-themes identified in Table 5. Our analysis has demonstrated that these leaders before COVID- 19 outbreak had well-defined responsibilities such as employee management, operational continuity, and compliance with safety and regulatory policies set by top leaders. These leaders displayed inclusive, empathetic, result-oriented, and directive behaviours.
Theme 1: operational leaders roles and behaviours pre-COVID-19: supporting sub-themes and quotes
Table 6 demonstrates how the initial stages of COVID-19 impacted operational leaders’ roles and behaviours. Operational leaders changed from normalcy responsibilities and adapted reactive measures, leading them to adapt their behaviours to meet new job demands and uncertainties. The core of leaders’ rapid adaptation roles and behaviours was identified in the initial stages of the pandemic and is supported by number of sub-themes identified below. The pandemic placed additional responsibilities on operational leaders and which in turn shifted their behaviours.
Theme 2: leaders’ rapid adaptation roles and behaviours at the initial stages of COVID-19: supporting sub-themes and quotes
At the peak of crisis stage, operational leaders’ work/behaviour shifted from the rapid adaptive measures and behaviours to more strategic planning as shown in Table 7. Our findings illustrated shifts to development of long-term remote strategies, emphasis on employee wellbeing and mental health support, and continuous communication with employees, and highlighted the relational leadership behaviours exhibited by operational leaders to drive these adaptations. The core themes of proactive adaptation of roles and behaviours were identified further into the pandemic, and it is supported by sub-themes highlighted in Table 7.
Theme 3: operational leaders’ proactive adaptation of roles and change in behaviours further into COVID-19: supporting sub-themes and quotes
As the operational leaders emerged out of the COVID-19 crisis, Table 8 show that they shifted their roles and behaviours again to focus on recovery, trust and building sustainable resilience. They reflect on lessons and opportunities created by the crisis and how they can be translated into long-term strategic practices. Operational leaders recognised the significance of investing in digital infrastructure and adapting hybrid work models. Also, they identified the gap in the pre-COVID-19 business continuity and resilience plans and how they can be improved. The theme of reflection transformation and sustainable resilience emerged consistent during the analysis and supported by the sub-theme reported in Table 8.
Theme 4: operational leaders reflection transformation and sustainable resilience emerging out of COVID-19: supporting sub-themes and quotes
In addition to the lessons learned and opportunities presented the prolonged COVID-19 crisis, the theme of ‘pandemic leadership behaviours evolving into long-term strategies’ emerged as prominent during the thematic analysis. Our study revealed that the operational leaders acknowledged adopting the COVID-19 crisis short-term responses and management strategies into the long-term tactics. This major theme is supported by the sub-themes provided in Table 9.
Theme 5. Pandemic leadership behaviours evolving into long-term strategies: supporting sub-themes and quotes
Discussion
The ACMT emphasises that leaders need to develop an ability to tackle and navigate complex crises without solely relying on predefined technical solutions (Coombs & Laufer, Reference Coombs and Laufer2018; Pearson & Clair, Reference Pearson and Clair1998). Instead, they should implement adaptive strategies that emphasise rapid decision-making, effective communication, and flexible responses to ensure stability and recovery (Bundy et al., Reference Bundy, Pfarret, Short and Coombs2017; Wotten & James, Reference Wotten and James2008). In this regard, our research showed that operational leaders promptly changed their roles and behaviours in response to the evolving pandemic, prioritising quick action, stabilisation, and recovery. Through analysing real-life instances of ACMT, our study provides valuable insights for theory that also have implications for best practice. Indeed, the study offered profound insights into the theory’s relevance and efficacy (Pearson & Clair, Reference Pearson and Clair1998; Uy et al., Reference Uy, Kilag, Abendan, Macapobre, Canizares and Yray2023).
Initial outbreak stage of the COVID-19 pandemic
The analysis of the pre-COVID-19 operational leaders’ roles has demonstrated that they balanced the responsibilities of team management and safety compliance as well as operational continuity. Additionally, our findings showed that these leaders displayed diverse behaviours such as inclusivity, empathy, focus on results, and being directive. However, when the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in 2020, the nature of operational leaders’ roles and behaviours were rapidly adapted to meet the demands. The immediate adaptive strategies adopted by the operational leaders include sense-making and implementation of new government and top leaders COVID-19 respond protocols. Moreover, operational leaders were tasked with the responsibility of overseeing logistics, which includes coordinating the movement of personnel, equipment, and supplies in challenging remote or offshore locations (Atkins, Zhang, & Yu, Reference Atkins, Zhang and Yu2010). The ability of these leaders to swiftly adapt to new roles showcased their agility and resilience, both essential for ACMT (Uy et al., Reference Uy, Kilag, Abendan, Macapobre, Canizares and Yray2023).
Operational leaders not only fulfilled their sense-making and policy implementation duties but also promptly modified their responsibilities to prioritise the wellbeing of employees. Employees pre-COVID-19 work, and travel arrangements were restructured. Leaders changed workforce working rosters, working hours, adopting working from home, and so on. Also, as part of risk management, operational leaders were required to identify a minimum number of onsite personnel and adjust transportation methods such as buses and planes, to prevent cross-contamination among employees. By prioritising employee’s health and safety, operational leaders provide stability and helped build long-term resilience of their companies. Our findings complement and expand multiple studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic that highlighted the significance of adaptive crisis management in protecting employee wellbeing (Bartsch, Weber, Buttgen, & Hubber, Reference Bartsch, Weber, Buttgen and Hubber2021; Caringgal-go et al., Reference Caringgal-go, Teng-Calleja, Franco and Manaois2021; Spagnoli et al., Reference Spagnoli, Molino, Molinaro, Giancaspro, Manuti and Ghislieri2020). The shift in priorities and behaviours at the initial stages of the pandemic underscore the importance of rapid adaptative and supportive actions which aligned with the ACMT.
In addition, one of the key components of ACMT is effective communication (Lynn Perry & Erika Hayes, Reference Lynn Perry and Erika Hayes2008). Our study determined that maintaining transparency, trust, and alignment during pandemic uncertainties relies heavily on continual and effective communication from the start (Guan et al., Reference Guan, NI, Hu, Liang, Ou, He and Hui2020). Operational leaders had to frequently communicate with their employees, giving them updates on crisis response plans, safety protocols, and organisational changes. The pandemic compelled operational leaders to adapt swift decision-making approach, flexibility, problem-solving, and clear and regular communication to ensure business continuity and staff wellbeing (Terblanche, Reference Terblanche2022). This finding confirms the significance of open and transparent communication in establishing trust, minimising uncertainty, and cultivating resilience within organisations (Dale Oen et al., Reference Dale Oen, Svihus, Solberg, Harris and Eid2022).
The shifting of roles at the initial stages of the pandemic led to additional job demands among operational leaders, requiring them to adopt more directive and micromanagement tactics. Our findings align with work of Sadiq et al. (Reference Sadiq, Kapucu and Hu2020) which demonstrated that leaders in multiple sectors (e.g., healthcare and business) took an active and directive approach at the beginning of the crisis to quickly fix the problem. The shift towards these behaviours reflects the need for close oversight and control to ensure adherence to health protocols, government directives, and operational efficiency during uncertain times. This study demonstrated that leaders need to adjust their behaviours to manage the crisis and maintain the orderliness of the organisation.
Peak of COVID-19 crisis
As the pandemic progressed further, the theme of ‘proactive adaptation of roles and behaviours’ emerged consistently. Operational leaders in MOG industries redirected their attention towards long-term remote strategies, digital transformation, and the evaluation of hybrid work models for long-term sustainability as the pandemic continued. Leaders noted value in flexible remote work and technologies (Acciarini, Boccardelli, & Vitale, Reference Acciarini, Boccardelli and Vitale2021). Consequently, leaders initiated the development of clear performance measures and effectiveness criteria for work in non-traditional work environments, while simultaneously cultivating trust among geographically dispersed employee teams (Ng et al., Reference Ng, Naranjo, Schlotzhauer, Shoss, Kartvelishvili, Bartek and Silverlieb-Selzer2021). This emphasises the significance of being strategically agile and innovative in ACMT, acknowledging that leaders must adapt strategies to keep up with evolving challenges and opportunities (Blaszczyk et al., Reference Blaszczyk, Popovic, Zajdel and Zajdel2023; Stoker et al., Reference Stoker, Garretsen and Soudis2019).
In addition, our study has revealed a continuous focus on employee wellbeing, mental health support, and inclusive behaviours reflecting the importance of employee-centric leadership within adaptive crisis management theory. The results demonstrated that operational leadership prioritised effective communication, empathy, and support to foster trust and resilience among employees. Operational leaders realised that assisting staff in the hard times was of paramount importance and consequently implemented policies aimed at safeguarding the personnel’s physical and mental wellbeing as well as their productivity (Delfino & Van Der Kolk, Reference Delfino and Van Der Kolk2021; Li et al., Reference Li, Zhang, Hua and Wang2021). This accords with studies focusing on the positive effect of wellbeing support, positive relationship and inclusivity on the psychological wellbeing and work engagement of employees during crisis periods (Ahmed, Zhao, & Faraz, Reference Ahmed, Zhao and Faraz2020; Kusumwardani, Arquisola, Amin, & Restiawati, Reference Kusumwardani, Arquisola, Amin and Restiawati2023), thus bridging the knowledge gap concerning leader behaviours in crisis. This underscores the role of leaders in building trust, promoting collaboration, and empowering teams to navigate challenges effectively.
Recovery stage (emerging out) of COVID-19
The emergence from the COVID-19 pandemic has provided the opportunity for operational leaders to reflect on the challenges and opportunities. Theme of ‘reflection transformation and sustainable resilience’ has emerged from the analysis. Developing through difficulties of the pandemic, Australian MOG industries have gained invaluable experience in being resilient and sustainable. The stand of the operational leaders on building the foundation for resiliency and readiness for the future undeniably shows the significance of strategic planning and adaptation at the long-term stage which is a hallmark of ACMT (Jong, Duckers, & Velden, Reference Jong, Duckers and Velden2016; Van Wart & Kapucu, Reference Van Wart and Kapucu2011). Current operational leaders were assessed with concern to their capacity to identify business continuity plans, invest in digital assets, and analyse the sustainability of remote work models to augment organisational resilience towards future shocks. This shows the significance of leaders for looking ahead and being prepared for whatever challenges might emerge while sustaining an environment of flexibility and ability to withstand any difficulties inside these organisations (Wotten & James, Reference Wotten and James2008).
Furthermore, operational leaders’ focus on digital transformation and innovation mirror the way the nature of work and business operations have been altered because of the pandemic (Blaszczyk et al., Reference Blaszczyk, Popovic, Zajdel and Zajdel2023; Li et al., Reference Li, Zhang, Hua and Wang2021). The leaders of the MOG industries have adopted digital technologies and built digital infrastructure, while at the same time changing work practices are being evaluated to create organisational resilience and adaptability (Bartsch et al., Reference Bartsch, Weber, Buttgen and Hubber2021). This narrows down the role of technology in ACMT, where leaders get to use technology to drive agility as well as be open for innovation (Bartsch et al., Reference Bartsch, Weber, Buttgen and Hubber2021; Pearson & Mitroff, Reference Pearson and Mitroff1993).
Additionally, the attention to organisational resilience and change management is provided as leaders remain exposed to the challenges of uncertainty and change management. Leaders committed to creating flexible working hours, strengthen crisis management skills and establishing an atmosphere of resilience to survive the pandemic world (Pearson & Clair, Reference Pearson and Clair1998). This highlights the significance of suitable change management practices that are rooted in ACMT, because leaders must not only manage changes but also minimise disruptions and maximise resilience (Fener & Çedikci Çevik, Reference Fener and Çedikci Çevik2015; Grint, Reference Grint2020).
Emerging from the pandemic, our findings also shown that some of operational leaders shift behaviours to support recovery, trust, and resilience. While effective communication remains, the emphasis was on communication of the long-term strategy and organisational goals. The purpose was to promote transparency with employees and build trust among them. The role of efficient communication in overcoming the post-pandemic orientation was championed by the operational leaders. Good communications practices advanced organisational resilience and trust in crises through research (Barua & Bhattacharya, Reference Barua and Bhattacharya2023; Muir et al., Reference Muir, Bernhardt, Boucher, Cvitnovic, Dettmers, Gaden and Sifkes2023).
In addition, supportive behaviours were sustained or adopted to assist employees in transitioning back to the workplace and addressing any lingering challenges from the pandemic. However, there was a greater emphasis on sustaining employee morale and motivation as employees adjust to new work norms and expectations. Empathy and support remain crucial in the post-pandemic world as organisations transition to new ways of working. Study by Liu, Gong, Zhou and Huang (Reference Liu, Gong, Zhou and Huang2020) highlight the positive impact of supportive leadership behaviours on employee wellbeing and organisational performance. Operational leaders continue to prioritise employee welfare by offering flexibility, recognising individual needs, and providing resources for mental health support.
During this latter stage of the pandemic, some operational leaders emphasised more inclusive behaviours. Leaders acknowledged that inclusive behaviour was need in this period to promote sense of belonging and innovation in diverse work environment. This finding is line with number of studies conducted which demonstrated the nexus between the inclusive leadership behaviours, teamwork, and innovation thinking which is required in this period of new working arrangements (Flemming, Reference Flemming2022; Kusumwardani et al., Reference Kusumwardani, Arquisola, Amin and Restiawati2023; Sokro, Obuobisa-Darko & Zungbey, Reference Sokro, Obuobisa-Darko and Zungbey2023).
While the initial stages and further stages (peak) into COVID-19 were reactive, many of the strategies and behaviours adopted in these periods have become part of operating models and embedded in the everyday leadership practices of Australian MOG industry leaders. This agrees with the theoretical perspective of Bass and Avolio’s transformational leadership whereby the leaders initiate massive change considering external pressures (Bass & Avolio, Reference Bass and Avolio1994).
During the recovery stage, the theme of adaptability and crisis management became prominent among the participants. The participants acknowledged that the pandemic enhanced their capacity to respond quickly to crises. This is in line with existing literature on leadership in high-risk industries, emphasising the importance of adaptability and resilience (Bajaba et al., Reference Bajaba, Bajaba, Algarni, Basahal and Basahel2021; Cote, Reference Cote2022; Dulewicz & Higgs, Reference Dulewicz and Higgs2005). Operational leaders in Australian MOG industries are better prepared for a range of disruptions compared to pre-COVID-19 crisis. The long-term adoption of adaptability reflects a broader shift towards proactive, rather than reactive, leadership. These leaders acknowledged that flexibility is crucial in resources industry where crises are common, and they continue to apply this mindset in everyday decision-making.
The concern for the health of the workers has also created better safety systems in MOG industries. Operational leaders remain committed in complementing health check, wellness programs and mental health support to promote employee wellbeing. The physical, psychological and emotional health has positive correlation with work output and organisational performance (Anitha, Reference Anitha2014; Krekel, Ward & Neve, Reference Krekel, Ward and Neve2019). This shift in focusing on safety makes it clear that the pandemic has left a lasting mark on leadership approaches to human capital. Thus, the integration of wellbeing into leadership approaches means that safety stays a priority in the long term to increase retention and lessen operational hazards for mining leaders.
The study further explained the emergent issue of sustainable leadership and collaborative leadership. Operational leaders in the Australian MOG industries promote more inclusive decision-making processes. These behaviours learned during the pandemic, follow the current trends of ethical leadership and corporate social responsibility (Carrol, Reference Carrol2016; Markey, Ventura, Donnell, & Doody, Reference Markey, Ventura, Donnell and Doody2021; Porkodi, Reference Porkodi2022). In this regard, mentality, which began to form during the pandemic, including increased concern for global problems and the ability to build resistance, becomes the long-term basis for ethical and sustainable leadership.
Theoretical implications
The study showed that operational leaders in Australian MOG industries promptly adapted their strategies and behaviours throughout the various stages of the pandemic to meet immediate demands and ensure business continuity. This result contributes the development of ACMT (Howitt & Leonard, Reference Howitt and Leonard2009). Fink (Reference Fink1986) introduced this concept, emphasising the necessity for businesses to make real-time adjustments instead of relying solely on pre-established crisis plans. The theory posits that crises can be overcome through continuous learning and adaptation (Boin & Mcconnel, Reference Boin and Mcconnel2007). Traditionally, the roles of leaders have been depicted to be static (Drabek & Mcentire, Reference Drabek and Mcentire2003; Quarantelli, Reference Quarantelli1998). However, the results from this study do not support such a narrative and point to adaptive responses in each phase of crisis (Comfort, Reference Comfort2007; Paton & Johnston, Reference Paton and Johnston2017). In the four stages of the COVID-19 crisis, we have shown that operational leaders change their strategies along with duties and behaviours (Heifetz et al., Reference Heifetz, Grashow and Linksy2009; Heifetz & Linksy, Reference Heifetz and Linksy2017).
Practical implications
This study’s findings have practical applications for MOG industries operational leadership. The study urges companies to promote a culture of proactive sense-making (Kervinen, Reference Kervinen2021). It is advisable for leaders to constantly assess and analyse the external environment, identifying emerging signals of change or crisis (Weick, Reference Weick1995). This allows organisations to respond rapidly to new challenges. Companies should train leaders in sense-making techniques (Weick, Reference Weick1995). Also, businesses should enhance their crisis preparedness by accepting the changes in responsibilities and roles at each stage of a crisis. This entails developing and continually updating crisis response plans that incorporate elements such as policy implementation, communication tactics, logistics, and employee welfare. Companies require regular crisis simulation exercises, fine-tuned response plans and familiarisation of employees with protocols. In addition, wellbeing should be a focus for leaders as they implement programs that promote positive mental health, support, and flexible working.
Limitations and future research
Our study illuminates the changes in operational leaders’ roles and behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia’s MOG sectors, but we must acknowledge its limitations. First and foremost, it is crucial to recognise that interview data reflects the subjective viewpoints and experiences of operational leaders, rather than providing objective accounts of reality (Terblanche, Reference Terblanche2022). Future research can benefit from using multiple methods to collect data and examine differences in operational leaders’ perceptions across organisational levels and industries (Onwuegbuziw & Leech, Reference Onwuegbuziw and Leech2004). Furthermore, the outcomes were obtained from the Australian oil, gas, and mineral field, indicating that cultural variations in responding to and handling the COVID-19 crisis may result in diverse perceptions of operational leaders across nations. Also, future research should examine the role of senior leaders in resourcing and committing to necessary adaptions in strategy and operational actions.
Conclusion
The thematic analysis showed how operational leaders’ roles and behaviours changed during the four stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings indicate that there was a marked shift in leaders’ roles and behaviours during the initial chaotic stages of the pandemic, while their overall core operational responsibilities were largely unchanged. The pandemic created additional duties and responsibilities, which resulted in leaders’ behavioural adaptation. The analysis also revealed that the roles of leaders established in the early stages of the pandemic became regular practices further into the crisis, with certain aspects being emphasised. Additionally, the findings indicate that crisis has presented future opportunities for adoption such as remote work and tech-enhancement. These insights show how crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic can add extra pressure on leaders, potentially resulting in negative effects on their mental and emotional wellbeing.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge Edith Cowan University (ECU), the Australian Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarships, the Minerals Research Institute of Western Australia (MRIWA), and Australian resources industry companies for their invaluable contributions to this study.
Author contributions
Michael Ajith: conceptualisation, methodology, data collection, analysis, writing first draft. Andrei Lux, Tim Bentley, and Michelle Striepe: supervision and editing.
Conflict(s) of Interest
The author have nothing to declare.
Open access
