2. China’s electroacoustic music: From exploration to innovation

In 1948, the first manifestations of electroacoustic music were presented on French Radio. That year, the French composer Pierre Schaeffer initiated the creation of Musique Concrète at Radiodiffusion Nationale, which quickly gained international attention and development; however, this did not occur in China at that time (Battier Reference Battier, Puckette and Hagan2020). Electronic music in China can be traced back to the 1980s. Li (Reference Li2018) believes that prior to the visit of French musician Jean-Michel Jarre to China in 1981, China did not have a concept of ‘electronic music’ until he introduced popular electronic music, which became a pivotal moment of enlightenment for modern Chinese music. Qian (Reference Qian2007) argues, ‘The electronic music concert held on September 24, 1984, jointly organized by the Central Conservatory of Music and China Record Company in the auditorium of the Central Conservatory of Music, marked the beginning of “pure electronic music” in China’. Zhao’s (Reference Zhao1985) paper titled An Introduction to the Technology of Electronic Music, published in the inaugural issue of ‘Chinese Musicology’ in 1985, stands as one of the earliest comprehensive and in-depth scholarly works in Chinese literature that delves into the realm of electronic music.

Zhang (Reference Zhang2012) divides the development of China’s electroacoustic music into three stages: the first stage (1984–1993) is the exploration and initial awareness stage; the second stage (1994–2003) is the expansion and accumulation stage; and the third stage (2004–2012) is the phase of comprehensive innovation and development. China’s development in electroacoustic music is believed to have lagged behind the West by approximately 40 years, a viewpoint widely acknowledged within the Chinese academic community. Liu (Reference Liu2022) posted that ‘The idea of “belatedness” shaping Zhang’s account has become a central trope or leitmotif in early historiographical narratives of Chinese electronic music’. However, this perspective seems to cater somewhat blindly to progress narratives, implying an organisation around a unified and linear story of progress. Lyotard (Reference Lyotard1994), in The Postmodern Condition, critiques the notion of linear progress, arguing that the historical and linear conception of progress has lost its persuasiveness in postmodern society and that traditional grand narratives must be deconstructed. As for segmenting the development of China’s electroacoustic music along a temporal timeline, this article’s perspective emphasises the challenges of pinpointing an exact starting point, suggesting that the process is dynamic and resists being measured purely in temporal terms. This implies that any attempt to define a clear origin must account for overlapping influences and evolving contexts, which cannot be neatly constrained by linear timelines.

Admittedly, progress narratives describe history as a Eurocentric process in which other regions endeavour to ‘catch up’ with the European model. Nevertheless, despite its limitations, the progress narrative is not entirely devoid of value. It offers a shared goal and vision while also functioning as a catalyst for positive social change. According to Heile (Reference Heile2024), while musical modernism indeed had a centre, and the dissemination of people, styles, ideas and technologies from the centre to the periphery was more prevalent, the ‘centre-periphery’ relationship was not static but rather subject to dynamic change.

It is evident that China missed the era of ‘concrete music’ and ‘tape music’, resulting in a lack of exploration and accumulation in this particular realm of work. Zhao (Reference Zhao2019) believes that the creative practice of Chinese composers in electronic music essentially originates from electroacoustic music. However, through the efforts of several generations of composers, electroacoustic music quickly entered a period of rapid development in China. Although this occurred somewhat later than in Western countries and in Japan and South Korea, a large number of highly mature electroacoustic works incorporating Chinese elements have emerged, gaining recognition on the international stage. Composers such as Chen Yuanlin, Zhang Xiaofu and Xu Shuya have played significant roles in this process; having studied abroad, they learned advanced techniques and concepts, integrating Chinese characteristics into their electroacoustic compositions. This not only provides a unique perspective for the creation of electroacoustic music but also helps to promote and preserve traditional Chinese culture. These composers combine Western electronic music with traditional Chinese philosophies, creating a ‘new sound’ that is popular not only in the West but also in China and other Asian countries. For example, some of the earlier Chinese composers and works that gained recognition and were active on the international stage include Zhang Xiaofu’s Dialogues in Different Spaces, Xu Shuya’s Taiyi II and Liu Jian’s Ornamentation, among others. Indeed, the journey from initial exploration to the gradual establishment of a distinctive compositional style, and then to integration with the global music scene and achieving international influence, has not been an overnight success, but rather the result of decades of practice and exploration by several generations of composers.

3. The influence of history

As the first generation of electroacoustic composers in China, their work was, to some extent, influenced by the prevailing ‘banner’ of modernisation in Chinese society at that time. This influence can be traced from the ‘anti-Western modernisation’ during the Cultural Revolution led by Mao Zedong (1966–1976), a period during which contacts between China and the West were virtually severed, and the promotion of resistance to Western culture and values was prevalent. In contrast, during the era of Reform and Opening-Up (beginning in 1978) under Deng Xiaoping’s leadership, there was a growing appreciation for Western experiences. During this period, China gradually began to open up to foreign trade and absorb advanced foreign technologies and management practices. Subsequently, Deng proposed a compromise path of developing socialism with Chinese characteristics (1982), which established a ‘socialist market economy’ model suited to China’s national conditions. This concept has continued to evolve, with Xi Jinping further emphasising the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new era. Significant events, such as the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the changes in Eastern Europe in the 1990s, prompted profound reflections on the Western-style modernisation path within China’s reform and opening-up process. Throughout this process, China gradually shifted from outright rejection of the West to selectively learning from and adapting Western models, striving to create a modernisation path that not only embodies local characteristics but also promotes efficient development by integrating indigenous traditions with Western experiences.

In 1950, the Communist Party aimed to modernise music through Westernisation, creating a form of music with ‘national characteristics’ to better align with their political ideals (Keyes Reference Keyes2005). Although many composers studied Western techniques in the Soviet Union, their works were imbued with a sense of ‘Chineseness’, which was a core principle guiding government policies and actions (Battier Reference Battier, Puckette and Hagan2020). This influence is also evident in Chinese cinema; starting in the mid-1980s, Chinese films achieved significant success internationally. Some Chinese intellectuals believe that this success was, to some extent, attained through ‘self-Orientalisation’, meaning that Chinese cinema intentionally or unintentionally catered to Western audiences’ stereotypes of China to conform to Western cultural preferences (Chang Reference Chang2007: 202). This situation is quite similar to the initial state of Chinese electroacoustic music, where many Chinese critics and scholars base the success of Chinese electroacoustic music on its recognition on the Western or global stage, essentially yielding to the standards and frameworks established by the West. Thompson (Reference Thompson2017) critiques the racialised dynamics within the ‘ontological turn’ in sound studies, pointing out that the so-called ‘sound-itself’ is in fact predicated upon a ‘modest white aurality’, which obscures the relationship between sound and the social world.

It is worth noting that although there is a correlation, ‘Chineseness’, as a dynamic cultural construct, has undergone processes of temporal evolution and disciplinary migration and does not refer to stereotypes or pejorative expressions. Mittler (Reference Mittler1997: 269–301) conceptualises Chineseness as a constructed, plural and cultural category, integral to the development of new Chinese music through its interaction with Western music and modernity, rather than reducible to nationalism or political mandate. This paper focuses solely on the phenomenon wherein, within certain cultural practices and critical contexts, ‘Chineseness’ is excessively promoted, oversimplified or even reified. ‘Orientalism’, by contrast, refers to the representation of the Orient as the Other within a Western-dominated discursive framework. In comparison, ‘self-Orientalism’ is even more controversial; it denotes the subject’s self-alienation and reproduction of its own image within specific historical and cultural contexts.

Moreover, within China’s conservatories, there exists a teacher–student transmission relationship (influenced by Confucian educational philosophy). Although the Confucian teacher–student mentorship fosters positive interaction and educational order, its drawback lies in the excessive emphasis on authority and hierarchy, which suppresses students’ independent thinking and individual development. Several distinguished composers serve as faculty members, imparting their experiences of success and international recognition to their students – specifically, the idea of integrating Chinese elements into Western compositional techniques. These students often remain at the institution as faculty themselves. This dynamic undoubtedly allows the creative directions of several authoritative Chinese composers to lead the development of electroacoustic music in China. For instance, Professor Jin Ping asserts, ‘the influence of Zhang Xiaofu still very much remains’ (De Ritis Reference De Ritis2022). Lu (Reference Lu2010) noted that, compared with the United States, Chinese universities often hire their own graduates, and the lack of mobility results in a relatively closed academic environment. In that epoch, the adoption of such strategies was an act of reluctant pragmatism, compelled by the exigencies of the time.

Additionally, within the traditional Chinese education system, there exists a tendency towards exam-oriented and standardised answers, particularly evident in the context of high-stakes testing. Although there have been improvements in recent years, issues such as neglecting students’ individualised development and innovative abilities persist. The renowned Chinese author Yu Hua once remarked that a short story he wrote was included in the Chinese high school Chinese language curriculum, yet many students lost points on related questions; he himself would have answered incorrectly had he taken the exam. Similarly, the celebrated writer Zhou Guoping mentioned in an interview that when faced with reading comprehension questions about his own work – such as identifying the main idea, summarising paragraphs or explaining the meaning of specific sentences – he scored only 69 out of 100, barely passing (with 60 generally considered a passing score in the Chinese education system). While he discusses this incident as a joke, it indirectly reflects the traditional Chinese education’s preference for singular standard answers. Returning to the aforementioned conservatories, several authoritative Chinese electroacoustic composers have become the ‘standard answers’ in this field, leading the younger generation of composers to base their creative practices largely on these established standards. This has led to a situation where, despite the large quantity of electroacoustic works with Chinese characteristics at that time, most were quite similar and lacked sufficient innovation. From an academic research perspective, many papers on electroacoustic music reveal that students often prefer to analyse works by their own teachers or tend to cluster around a few pieces by certain outstanding Chinese composers. For instance, works such as Zhang Xiaofu’s Nuorilang, Chanting(Le Chant Intérieur), Facial Makeup and Xu Shuya’s Taiyi II are often regarded as representative pieces in this field, frequently serving as the core subjects of academic papers and the most compelling supplementary case studies. In Chinese art, originality is secondary, and faithful imitation of ancient masters is the primary, widely held goal (Kouwenhoven Reference Kouwenhoven1991). This phenomenon is not limited to the Chinese academic community. In summarising the three pathways of Chinese electroacoustic music, Landy (Reference Landy and Emmerson2018) interviewed a total of four composers to examine the influences most relevant to their electroacoustic works. These four composers include Zhang Xiaofu and three of his students. Admittedly, at one time in the UK, certain practitioners or aesthetics were seen as ‘core’, reflecting the issue of canon formation and the authority given to specific works or artists. Furthermore, there has been a rise in overly celebratory rhetoric that emphasises the importance of ‘Chineseness’ in the development of electroacoustic music in China. As a result, even today, many young composers still view promoting traditional Chinese culture and integrating it into electroacoustic music as a responsibility. Zhang (Reference Zhang2022), in Thoughts on the Countermeasures for the Development of Chinese Electronic Music, asserts that innovative development rooted in traditional Chinese culture is a significant mission for the creation of electroacoustic music in China. Many Chinese composers find themselves trapped in this mission and are unwavering in their belief in it.

Certainly, this has delineated a clear and viable shortcut for Chinese electroacoustic music, which commenced its development ‘later’ than in other countries. However, it is irrefutable that such a closed academic environment has constrained the personal creativity of the younger generation of composers and scholars, thereby becoming a significant impediment to the sustained advancement of electroacoustic music in China. De Ritis, Friar and Zhang (Reference De Ritis, Friar and Zhang2015) examine the cultural barriers to innovation encountered by Chinese students, highlighting a collectivist inclination within Chinese culture that discourages individuals from distinguishing themselves or exhibiting excessive prominence. This stands in stark contrast to the individual creativity and independent thinking that are vital for fostering innovation. In the development of electroacoustic music in China, whether in the retrospection of its history, the exploration of creative models or the envisioning of future prospects, there appears to be a relatively unified tendency, with dissenting or opposing voices being notably scarce. This phenomenon may reflect a certain continuity of inherent logic, yet it also raises the question of whether diverse perspectives and potential critical spaces have been overlooked in the process. By contrast, electroacoustic music in the United States, and to an extent, in Europe, was closely tied to experimentalism (e.g., David Tudor, Fluxus, etc.) and often comprised elements of dissent or opposition. While the rebellious nature in the West is not without its issues, its radical experimental spirit has at least preserved the inherent subversiveness and continuous self-critique essential to art, driving the ongoing innovation of both artistic form and content.

4. China’s electroacoustic music in the eyes of Chinese and Western scholars

Many Chinese and Western scholars have already made significant contributions to the study and synthesis of electronic music through the integration of Chinese and Western cultures, offering a number of highly constructive suggestions.

Liu (Reference Liu2022) discusses the interpretation of the ‘Chinese model’ and the concept of ‘syncretism’. She argues that this approach is not merely a simple juxtaposition or collage of conflicting ideas, but rather a ‘synthesis’. In other words, it seeks to explore a more ‘profound’ whole rather than adhering to a strictly oppositional framework. Yang (Reference Yang2018) approaches the understanding of hybridised language in these works by introducing Agawu’s concepts of ‘extroversive semiotics’ and ‘introversive semiotics’, as well as the idea of re-creation of symbols in Chinese electronic music, specifically through the lens of ‘self-created symbol systems’. Liu and Yang (Reference Liu and Yang2021) analyse electroacoustic works by four representative Chinese composers and argue these pieces embody the interplay of ‘tradition’ and ‘modernity’, ‘East’ and ‘West’, reflecting globalisation and national identity in modern China. Zhang (Reference Zhang2018) advocates for the establishment of a music lexicon that is rich and distinctive to Chinese characteristics, steering the development of electroacoustic music towards a uniquely Chinese identity. Xu (Reference Xu2007) argues that the rapid development of Chinese electroacoustic music can be attributed to its divergence from the Western path, instead embracing a fusion of Chinese and Western cultures, blending traditional culture with modern pluralism, integrating traditional thinking with contemporary music creation concepts and harmonising the essence of music with technological mediums, among other aspects. Wu (Reference Wu2010) echoes this perspective in the article To Pursue a Syncretism of Chinese and Western Cultures: Analysis of Zhang Xiaofu’s Nuo-Ri-Lang. It appears that, in the eyes of Chinese composers and scholars, there is a profound and unwavering trust in the model of integrating Chinese traditions or elements into electroacoustic music. An unassailable inner strength propels them forward on this path, with few criticisms or challenges emerging against it. In an interview, Jin Ping, a current professor in the composition department of the Chinese music conservatory, stated that historically, the ‘purely Western concepts’ have been widely employed by Chinese composers, and electroacoustic music that is devoid of Chinese elements is exceedingly rare (De Ritis Reference De Ritis2022).

Western scholars and composers have also contributed to the analysis and organisation of these hybrid electroacoustic music works from their own perspectives. Landy (Reference Landy and Emmerson2018) summarises three pathways regarding Chinese electroacoustic music: (1) sampling from Chinese music, (2) utilising Chinese instruments or compositional methods and (3) inspiration derived from Chinese culture. He conducted interviews with four Chinese composers, including Zhang Xiaofu, and concluded that, in contrast to Western composers who focus on the structural and technical aspects of their works, these four East Asian composers embody a ‘more oriental sensibility’ in their thinking. In his concluding remarks, Landy (Reference Landy and Emmerson2018) compares the path of electronic music in China with that of Europe and the United States, noting that composers in Europe and the United States typically choose less to actively integrate local musical cultures or non-musical cultural influences into their creative processes. In this regard, Chinese composers are seen to perform better. Through this comparison, he implicitly affirms the Chinese path, while also emphasising a contrasting power structure: on the one hand, there is the localisation narrative of China’s resistance to Western culture, and on the other, the globalisation narrative dominated by the West. This may stem from the fact that hybridity is commonly anticipated in the works of non-Western composers, with the assumption that their music should reflect their cultural origins, whereas Western composers are not subject to this expectation, resulting in an imbalance (Heile Reference Heile2024).

Battier (Reference Battier, Puckette and Hagan2020) comments on a work by Zhang Xiaofu that has a significant impact on Chinese electroacoustic music, stating that ‘Nuo Ri Lang reflects the preoccupation of the author with making room for elements of Chineseness alongside a Western idiomatic language’. Battier (Reference Battier2022) also references Yayoi Uno Everett’s categorisation of cross-cultural musical styles – ‘transference’, ‘syncretism’ and ‘synthesis’ – and analyses the different levels from simple references to Asian elements to the deep integration of Eastern and Western musical characteristics. De Ritis (Reference De Ritis2022) examines how China has developed this Western-introduced art form amid globalisation and the internet, emphasising, through prior research and case studies, the importance of integrating Chinese elements into electronic music not only in technique but also in aesthetics and philosophy. Christopher J. Keyes, a Western composer teaching electroacoustic music in Hong Kong, explores how technological advancements have accelerated and deepened the integration of Chinese traditions and Western elements, forming a foundation for works appealing to both Western and non-Western audiences. He also critiques early superficial collaborations that resulted in ‘Orientalism’(Keyes Reference Keyes2005).

It is evident that, although the approaches used by both sides are not entirely the same, they both encourage a description of the development of electronic music in China that aligns with Gaonkar’s (Reference Gaonkar1999) concept of ‘alternative modernities’. Kouwenhoven (Reference Kouwenhoven1992) observes that contemporary Chinese new music oscillates between Eastern and Western cultural tensions, as composers, suddenly exposed to Western modernist trends after long isolation following the Reform and Opening, are compelled both to absorb these influences and to reconstruct them in light of their Chinese experience. Chang (Reference Chang2007) argues that this limited notion of ‘Chineseness’, ostensibly aimed at showcasing an empowering alternative model, actually falls into the dilemma of Chinese-Western dualism, further reinforcing this opposition. Wegner’s (Reference Wegner1989) ‘white bear’ theory seems to explain this phenomenon from a psychological perspective, where attempts to suppress or avoid certain specific thoughts ironically result in their increased prominence.

5. The trap of dualism

In his 1978 book Orientalism, Edward Said critiques the Western world’s stereotypes and cultural prejudices towards the East. He reveals the ways and purposes by which the West constructs images of the East and critiques the use of ‘Orientalism’ as a means to maintain Western power and dominance. Said calls for breaking down this binary opposition to enable equal dialogue among different cultures. Chang’s research at The State University of New York at Buffalo (2007) extends this body of work and initiates a critique of ‘Chinese alternative modernity’. Chinese intellectuals emphasise the essence of traditional culture, attempting to construct a ‘Chinese alternative modernity’ by reviving Chinese cultural elements. This discourse essentially replicates the self/other dichotomy of Orientalism. Although it seeks to oppose Western modes of understanding, it ultimately falls into the trap of binary opposition. Chang’s intention, of course, is to promote understanding and exploration of new possibilities and values between Chinese and Western cultures through critique and questioning. This aligns with the aim of this article, which is to critically reflect on the limitations in the current development of China’s electroacoustic music, uncover its potential for growth and thus provide a deeper theoretical foundation and practical pathways for its future diversification and innovation. This mirrors the current state of China’s electroacoustic music, which is somewhat similar in its over-reliance on the logic of ‘we are different from the West’ (Chang Reference Chang2007), thereby reinforcing the subordinate relationship between Chinese electronic music and Western electronic music. Certainly, many scholars have recognised that this dualism is undesirable; however, it is challenging to fundamentally change this ideological framework unless one understands and addresses the origins of dualism (Mathews Reference Mathews2017).

As early as 2000, John Corbett critiqued the persistence of Orientalism in experimental music. He claimed that, since World War II, most avant-garde musical practices and new music movements that sought to integrate non-Western elements have prominently been based on ‘Conceptual Orientalism’ or ‘contemporary chinoiserie’ in their development and creative ideologies. He argued that Henry Cowell juxtaposed ‘Eastern music’ with ‘primitive music’, thereby reinforcing the instrumentalised status of non-Western music. While John Cage avoided direct cultural appropriation, he inevitably perpetuated certain Orientalist logics. Tan Dun’s identity endows his works with an aura of cultural authenticity, but this authenticity may cater to Western demands for ‘Eastern wisdom’, transforming complex cultural practices into consumable artistic symbols (Corbett Reference Corbett, Born and Hesmondhalgh2000). Although John Corbett offers insightful observations regarding the tension between Tan Dun’s self-expression and his accommodation of Western audiences, it should be noted that the analysis offered by Corbett, which exhibits a tendency towards self-Orientalism, seems not to have fully transcended the binary framework of East and West. In fact, Tan Dun often prefers to identify himself as a cosmopolitan composer, and the Western audience is not a singular concept.

Battier (Reference Battier2022) suggests that Said’s ‘Orientalism’ primarily critiques the Western stereotypes and cultural distortions of the East during the colonial period. However, Corbett’s concept of ‘Conceptual Orientalism’ aligns more closely with the meaning of ‘Japonism’, referring to the symbolic references and aesthetic borrowings of Eastern culture by the West (Battier Reference Battier2022). Although this perspective has made some progress in critiquing the binary opposition between the East and the West, it also has its limitations. The foundational structures that support this dichotomy need to be further deconstructed, specifically regarding the concepts of East and West. In other words, while it avoids the imbalances associated with political or cultural power dynamics that involve interference or control, it merely highlights the redeeming qualities within Eastern culture, ultimately perpetuating the dualistic framework.

Liu (Reference Liu2022) astutely observes that a dominant trend in academia over the past decade has been the exploration of the possibilities of East-West integration, while the binary framework prevalent in early Chinese academic discourse on aesthetics is overly simplistic. Herskovits’s concept of syncretism offers a viable alternative for analysing Chinese electronic music. He also discusses the complex model of cultural fusion proposed by Peter Chang (Reference Chang2001). This viewpoint dialectically critiques the simplistic binary framework, while at the same time emphasising a higher degree of integration based on the opposition of ‘East’ and ‘West’. To truly dismantle this dualism, it is necessary to explore what perspectives should be adopted to understand the different layers and more complex relationships behind these cultural interminglings. Continuing to emphasise ‘Chineseness’ may unconsciously reproduce the Orientalist model and fall into the derived trap of dualism. The perpetuation of ‘East’ and ‘West’ narratives is essentially an oversimplification and reification of society, serving the interests of powerful forces, particularly in China, the United States and Europe, though not limited to these regions. Such narratives fail to accurately reflect the complexity of social realities. These terms simplify diverse regions into a singular entity and establish a seemingly insurmountable boundary between them (Heile Reference Heile2024).

Such deeply rooted hierarchical frameworks based on the dichotomies of ‘China/West’ or ‘backwardness/modernity’ are more or less influenced by Chinese society’s vision of modernity. Meinhof (Reference Meinhof2018) attempts to use the discourse of modernisation on Chinese university campuses to explain why narratives of ‘modernisation’ and China’s ‘backwardness’ have been so influential in Chinese society and to reflect on and deconstruct them through postcolonial critique. He found that the discourse of modernisation and ‘catching up’ with the ‘developed’ countries in reform-era China was pervasive. In everyday life in China, the discourse seems to be dominated more by a stereotypical nationalistic discourse of inferiority and defensiveness than by a sense of national pride. The notion that China is chronologically ‘backward’ is still prevalent in Chinese society. These perceptions limit the expression of China’s possible future because they restrict people’s imagination of it.

It is undeniable that this narrative, with its ‘colonial’ quality, is so persistent that this article inevitably begins with the use of words such as ‘catching up’ to express the historical process of Chinese electronic music, albeit in inverted commas. This paper, in its discussion of the developmental trajectory and historical impact of Chinese electroacoustic music, continues to reveal a tendency to regard the West as the ‘future standard’ for its development. It positions the contrast between technological progress and ‘backwardness’ as the most potent tool for driving transformation. This, in essence, still adheres to a narrative framework that uses time as the standard for driving ‘modernisation and progress’. Meinhof (Reference Meinhof2018) points out that there are those who believe that ‘China can surpass the West and articulate its own modernity’, trying to break the monopoly of the West’s ‘superiority’ but actually ‘reaffirming the very existence of a hierarchy of modernity’ in development practice.

6. Inspiration from ecofeminism

If we regard the deconstruction and transcendence of binary oppositions as a revolution, then feminism provides a practical and feasible pathway, along with a framework for transformation. Since the 1970s, the women’s rights movement has been exploring the origins of male-dominated social systems with the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of the roots of these social structures. Françoise d’Eaubonne’s 1974 book, Feminism or Death, serves as the foundation of ecofeminism and advocates for rethinking the relationships between humanity and nature, as well as gender and power, in a more inclusive and multidimensional manner (d’Eaubonne Reference d’Eaubonne2022).

Mathews (Reference Mathews2017) explores how dualism is linked to the domination of women and nature. This not only creates a dichotomy between men and women but also establishes a hierarchical structure that places men above women and culture above nature. If the issues of dualism indeed exist, is recombining what dualism has divided a viable solution? Feminist theorists (postmodern/poststructuralist/deconstructionist) argue that the definition itself is part of the problem (Mathews Reference Mathews2017). Plumwood (Reference Plumwood2002) explores the roots of the domination of nature and women in Western thought and how deconstructing dualism and reconstructing the relationship between humans and nature can lead to an ecological feminist perspective. The concept of ecology plays a crucial role in articulating relationality (Naess Reference Naess and Tobias1985, Reference Naess and Seed1988; Fox Reference Fox1990; Mathews Reference Mathews1991, Reference Mathews2017). From an ecological perspective, the essence of entities is no longer viewed as isolated; rather, it is defined by their relationships with other elements of the ecosystem (Mathews, Reference Mathews2017). In Plumwood’s ecofeminism, the solution to ecological crises and social inequalities is advocated through the reconstruction of our ‘dominant narratives’ regarding the relationship between humans and nature. She calls for the establishment of an ecological culture based on reciprocity and respect, which would liberate humanity from the role of dominators and foster a harmonious, symbiotic relationship with nature (Plumwood Reference Plumwood2002). Mathews (Reference Mathews2017) proposes strategic thinking, exemplified by the Daoist concept of ‘wu wei’ (non-action) from ancient China, which demonstrates a non-oppositional perspective of unity with nature. This perspective emphasises perceiving and adapting to the environment within specific contexts.

Admittedly, critiques of ecofeminism have never ceased. For instance, Foster (Reference Foster2021) argues that ecofeminists appear to associate men with culture and women with nature, thereby advancing an agenda that positions women as the primary agents of ecological conservation. While ecofeminism has its shortcomings, it offers valuable perspectives for critically examining the developmental trajectory of contemporary China’s electroacoustic music, particularly through its inclusive elements. It also provides certain warnings, such as the need to avoid tendencies towards overly simplistic or restrictive assumptions, including ‘essentialism’ and ‘universalism’, which are present in ecofeminism.

7. Ecological perspectives in music

Keogh (Reference Keogh2022) summarises that within the scope of music studies, ecological metaphors have a wide range of applications and meanings. For instance, Polansky (Reference Polansky1994) uses the metaphor of ‘ecology’ to describe the dynamic relationships in music composition. Archer (Reference Archer1964) defines music ecology as the relationship between music and the dynamics of the overall culture. Schafer (Reference Schafer1977) introduces the concept of the ‘soundscape’, defined as the synthesis of natural and human sound environments. Harley (Reference Harley1996) and Feld (Reference Feld, Bakke and Peterson2016) focus more on the symbiotic relationship between music and the natural world, particularly emphasising cultural heritage’s dependence on the natural environment. These scholars all attempt to explore the relationship between music and the environment through ecological metaphors, albeit with different focal points.

Clarke (Reference Clarke2005: 47) discussed the ecological approach to musical meaning, linking perception, music and meaning and integrating physical sources, structure, cultural significance and critical content. Waters (Reference Waters2007) developed the concept of performance ecosystems from projects at the University of East Anglia, noting that it encompasses dynamic, multilayered interactions among performers, instruments and the environment. A framework called ARCAA (Actors, Roles, Context, Activities, Artefacts) has been proposed to help designers systematically analyse and optimise the ecology of artefacts in music performances (Masu et al. Reference Masu, Bettega, Correia, Romão and Morreale2019). Keller (Reference Keller2000) discusses music composition from an ecological perspective, advocating integration of environmental sound models with social and cultural contexts and analysing his practice in touch’n’go/toco y me voy.

This article, premised on a critique of binary oppositions, seeks to establish a systematic and holistic perspective. Using the ecological system as a metaphor, it aims to explore a creative thinking methodology that understands phenomena through the interconnectedness of multiple layers and factors. Clarke points out that the ecological approach rejects the tendency to account for constancy and invariance exclusively through internal mechanisms, instead emphasising the importance of environmental influences and the inherent nature of phenomena (2005: 36). This approach avoids the singular pursuit of ‘Chineseness’ in the creative process, offering strategies characterised by diversity, balance and dynamic change for Chinese electronic music composition. It emphasises the symbiosis and collaboration of elements, providing a framework and theoretical basis for experimentation and innovation. At the methodological level, Piekut (Reference Piekut2011, Reference Piekut2014), through his critique of essentialist positions across different musical genres and his attention to processes of construction inspired by Latour’s Actor-Network Theory, provides a certain directional inspiration for the development of this paper.

8. Exploring ecological possibilities in compositional practice

The ecological perspective discussed in this paper can be regarded as an extension and deepening of existing methodologies in compositional practice and analysis. Compared to traditional binary or hierarchical methodologies, the ecosystem model offers a more holistic and dynamic framework, reflecting the contemporary emphasis on symbiotic and co-constructive mechanisms among diverse elements in artistic expression.

Mixobloodify is an audiovisual work that I completed in early 2024, which has since received acceptance and recognition in several composition competitions in both China and the West, including an Honorary Mention by the MA/IN24 AWARDS and Third Prize in the Electroacoustic Music with Image category at MUSICACOUSTICA-HANGZHOU 2024, among others. It has also been showcased at over ten music festivals and academic conferences in Europe and Asia, such as ICMC 2024 (Seoul), the ‘in律’ CONTEMPERAMENT Music Festival (London), the ArteScienza Festival 2024 (Rome) and NYCEMF 2025(New York). I believe that this work achieves a balance between Eastern and Western aesthetics and demonstrates a certain level of inclusivity.

The initial concept of this work was inspired by Homi Bhabha’s notion of the ‘Third Space’, aiming to explore the creation of a new digital language through the hybridisation of the pipa and electronic music. Throughout the development of Mixobloodify, I attempted to employ an ecological perspective strategy. The pipa, as an important sound source in the composition, is not merely viewed as a surface representation imbued with Chinese symbolic elements but is situated within a complex creative ecological network. This creative ecology is seen as a dynamic and constantly evolving process rather than a fixed structure. Furthermore, the relationships among these elements are multilayered. For instance, as a composer who has played the pipa since childhood, this layer considers the relationship between the composer and his cultural background. The pipa serves as an interactive medium for sound and visuals, which addresses the relationship between auditory and visual elements. The pipa is recorded and compiled into a corpus that is then imported into MaxMSP for ‘destruction’ and ‘reconstruction’, reflecting the relationship between sound sources and computer artefacts. The audience interprets and experiences the pipa sounds in the work through their own cultural experiences and backgrounds, which considers the relationship between the composer’s aesthetic and the audience’s interpretation. Evidently, these relationships are not isolated points; rather, they are intricately intertwined and mutually influential, each constraining the other. The subsets formed by these different elements and layers constitute a complete ecosystem, in which their interrelationships and interdependence collectively maintain the dynamic balance of the entire ecosystem.

Chanting, as a significant work in the early development of Chinese electronic music, has achieved a high degree of acceptance and aesthetic resonance in both Chinese and Western contexts. Many scholars’ interpretation of Chanting as merely the ‘electronic adaptation of traditional music’ reflects a preconceived position constrained by an essentialist binary framework of Eastern and Western cultures. This perspective, however, overlooks the multiple objectives Zhang Xiaofu pursued in the composition. For example, Zhou (Reference Zhou2009), in her analytical article on Chanting, describes the work as ‘a combination of electroacoustic techniques and traditional compositional concepts’. If the work is deconstructed through an ecological perspective, we may arrive at a more comprehensive understanding: the ‘Chineseness’ in the piece is not presented as a symbolic burden, but rather as a dynamic node embedded within a continuously flowing and mutually permeating network of multiple relationships. This network does not unfold according to a binary logic of tradition/modernity or Chinese/Western but instead is collaboratively generated and evolves within multiple cultural, technological and perceptual systems. For example, as a Chinese composer trained in Western electronic music, Zhang Xiaofu does not fully adhere to the aesthetics of Pierre Schaeffer’s musique concrète, nor does he confine himself to the expectations of ‘nationalisation’. Instead, he establishes a dynamic negotiation between the two. This reflects the relationship between the creator and the cultural context. The work features the composer’s innovative use of the dimo (membrane) of the Chinese dachu flute and the development of new performance techniques. Combined with the abstraction of sound material through processes of deconstruction, recombination and multi-effect electronic processing, these elements reflect the relationship between sound sources as cultural tropes and their technological adaptation. The arrangement of the loudspeakers in the live performance emphasises a polyphonic spatial effect, addressing the relationship between audience experience and the performance space. In the version produced after 2004, multiple layers of digital video were incorporated, creating a multimedia version that added a new dimension to the relationship between sound and visuality. The complex and multidimensional ecological structure of the work is not limited to the relationships outlined above. It is clearly reductive to interpret the piece solely from the perspective of Chinese symbolism.

It must be acknowledged that in compositional practice, these relationships are not always incorporated in an egalitarian manner. For instance, Keyes (Reference Keyes2005) admits that Li Jiang Etude No. 1 ‘is a work that is far less “me” than any other composition I have “written”’. In considering the relationship between the creator and cultural context, the composer emphasises a reflexive relationship between his own identity and the cultural traditions he engages with. In terms of reception, he observes that Western audiences tend to prefer Li Jiang Etude No. 2, which employs more Western techniques, whereas Chinese audiences favour Li Jiang Etude Numbers 1 and 3, which retain more elements of traditional Chinese character (Keyes Reference Keyes2005). Such differences in reception are not regarded as ‘misunderstandings’, but rather as interpretations of the relationship between the composer’s aesthetic intentions and the audience’s cultural experiences.

Kimberlé Crenshaw’s (Reference Crenshaw1989) theory of Intersectionality serves as a powerful support point within this ecological approach, addressing some of the issues ecofeminism encounters in resolving binary oppositions. For instance, Intersectionality theory challenges the limitations of single-axis analytical frameworks. In cases of racial discrimination, Black women are regarded as ‘Black’, but their gendered experiences are overlooked; in cases of gender discrimination, they are treated as ‘women’, but their racial identity is excluded (Crenshaw Reference Crenshaw1989). It provides a more inclusive and effective pathway for addressing multidimensional inequalities, while also unveiling the complexity of intersecting oppressions. The ecological approach proposed in this article advocates that individual identity is formed through the intersection of multiple cultural characteristics or referential frameworks. It facilitates an understanding of intersectionality and complexity in creation, avoiding single-dimensional analytical frameworks. This allows the use of specific elements, such as Chinese elements, in creative works to become interactively defined variables, fundamentally transcending the limitations of binary oppositions.