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Arctic Governance in the Face of Climate Change: A Case for “Inclusive Regionalism”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 October 2024

Carol Dyck
Carol Dyck*
Affiliation:
PhD candidate, Faculty of Law, Western University, London, ON, Canada
*
Email: cdyck22@uwo.ca
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Abstract

Arctic governance has entered a period of turmoil following the March 2022 Arctic Council pause in operations and, subsequently, the strained relations between the member states. As climate change dramatically alters the Arctic environment, opening the region to new economic possibilities and more global attention, the need for cooperation is greater than ever. This article examines the current geopolitical and environmental pressures that are undermining the Arctic Council’s legitimacy and operations at a critical juncture in Arctic governance. It contends that the Arctic Council must rethink how it engages with Arctic Council observers and the wider global community to ensure that pressing ecological, economic, and social issues are addressed judiciously to prevent potentially irreparable harm in the region. Specifically, the case is made that a shift to “inclusive regionalism” could secure the Arctic Council’s position as the pre-eminent forum to address Arctic issues and to re-establish the spirit of collaboration that reigned for a quarter century.

Résumé

Résumé

La gouvernance de l’Arctique est entrée dans une période de crise à la suite de la pause des opérations du Conseil de l’Arctique en 2022 et, par la suite, des relations tendues entre les États membres. Alors que le changement climatique modifie considérablement l’environnement arctique, ouvrant la région à de nouvelles possibilités économiques et à une attention mondiale accrue, le besoin de coopération est plus grand que jamais. Cet article examine les pressions géopolitiques et environnementales actuelles qui minent la légitimité et les opérations du Conseil de l’Arctique à un moment critique de la gouvernance de l’Arctique. Il soutient que le Conseil de l’Arctique doit repenser la manière dont il s’engage avec les observateurs et la communauté mondiale dans son ensemble pour garantir que les problèmes écologiques, économiques et sociaux urgents soient abordés judicieusement afin de prévenir des dommages potentiellement irréparables dans la région. Plus précisément, l’idée d’un “régionalisme inclusif” est proposée, qui pourrait assurer la position du Conseil de l’Arctique en tant que forum prééminent pour aborder les questions arctiques et rétablir l’esprit de collaboration qui a régné pendant un quart de siècle.

Keywords

Arctic CouncilArctic governanceUNCLOSregional governanceclimate changeConseil de l’Arctiquegouvernance de l’ArctiqueCNUDMgouvernance régionalechangement climatique

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Articles
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Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international , Volume 61 , November 2024 , pp. 141 - 166
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© The Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international 2024

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References

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3 Between 1975 and 2012, sea ice thickness decreased by 65 percent. In 2017, scientists recorded the lowest maximum ice extent in thirty-eight years; 2018 saw even greater loss. Christian Prip, “Arctic Ocean Governance in Light of an International Legally Binding Instrument on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction” (2019), online: Marine Policy <doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103768>; Michon Scott, “Arctic Sea Ice Extent at 2018 Winter Maximum Second Smallest on Record” (2018), online: NOAA Climate.gov <www.climate.gov/news-features/featured-images/arctic-sea-ice-extent-2018-winter-maximum-was-second-smallest-record>.

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5 Ibid.

6 Dodds, supra note 1 at 551.

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12 International Agreement to Prevent Unregulated Fishing in the High Seas of the Central Arctic Ocean, 3 October 2018 (entered into force June 2021) [CAOFA].

13 Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council, 19 September 1996, (1996) 35 ILM 1387 (entered into force 19 September 1996) (comprising Canada, Denmark, United States, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russian Federation) [Ottawa Declaration].

14 Arctic Council Secretariat, Arctic Council Rules of Procedure (17–18 September 1998) at para 7, online: <2015-09-01_Rules_of_Procedure_website_version.pdf> [Arctic Council Rules of Procedure]; Ottawa Declaration, supra note 13 at para 7.

15 Nord, supra note 7.

16 Ottawa Declaration, supra note 13 at para 1.

17 Ibid.

18 Ibid at para 5; Arctic Council Rules of Procedure, supra note 14 at para 17.

19 Ibid at para 10. For the first fifteen years of the Council’s operation, the chair was also responsible for providing support to the Secretariat to carry out its functions. Ottawa Declaration, supra note 13 at para 5.

20 Nuuk Declaration on the Occasion of the Seventh Ministerial Meeting of the Arctic Council (12 May 2011) at 1.

21 Arctic Council Rules of Procedure, supra note 14 at 5; Ottawa Declaration, supra note 13 at para 2.

22 Oran R Young, “Is It Time for a Reset in Arctic Governance?” (2019) 11 Sustainability 1, online: <doi.org/10.3390/su11164497>.

23 Nord, supra note 7.

24 Ottawa Declaration, supra note 13 at para 2. Currently, there are six permanent participants representing Indigenous communities across the Arctic: the Arctic Athabaskan Council, the Aleut International Association, the Gwich’in Council International, the Inuit Circumpolar Council, the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, and the Saami Council.

25 Heather Exner-Pirot et al, “Form and Function: The Future of the Arctic Council” (5 February 2019), online: Arctic Institute <www.thearcticinstitute.org/form-function-future-arctic-council/>.

26 Ottawa Declaration, supra note 13 at para 3; Danita Catherine Burke, Diplomacy and the Arctic Council (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2019).

27 Arctic Council Rules of Procedure, supra note 14 at paras 37 and 38.

28 Ibid at para 37.

29 Ibid at para 38 [emphasis added].

30 Ibid at para 38.

31 Arctic Council Rules of Procedure, supra note 14 (Article 6 outlines the general suitability of applicants. It notably specifies that the prospective Observer must recognize the Arctic States’ sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdiction over their territories in the Arctic [Annex 2, para 6(b)]. They must also recognize that an extensive legal framework, in particular the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), applies to the Arctic Ocean [Annex 2, para 6(c)]).

32 Ibid at para 37.

33 Ibid at para 37.

34 Nord, supra note 7; Rebecca Pincus, “Three-Way Power Dynamics in the Arctic” (2020) 14 Strategic Studies Quarterly 40. The European Union (EU) was also given the opportunity to join at a later date, but it still does not hold observer status since it is a supranational body, not an inter-governmental body. Arctic Council Rules of Procedure, supra note 14 at para 36. However, several EU states have observer status, and the EU helps finance certain projects.

35 Antarctic Treaty, 1 December 1959, 402 UNTS 71 (entered into force 23 June 1961).

36 Burke, supra note 26 at 117.

37 2008 Ilulissat Declaration (28 May 2008) (comprising Canada, the Russian Federation, Denmark, the United States, and Norway).

38 Burke, supra note 26 at 123.

39 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 397 (entered into force 16 November 1994) at art 3 [UNCLOS].

40 Ibid, arts 55, 57.

41 Ibid, art 56(a).

42 Ibid, art 56 (b).

43 Ibid, art 58.

44 Ibid, art 87(1).

45 Ibid, art 76(1).

46 Ibid, art 76(5).

47 Ibid, art 81.

48 Rebecca Pincus, “Three-Way Power Dynamics in the Arctic” (2020) 14 Strategic Studies Quarterly 40.

49 The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) under UNCLOS, supra note 39.

50 The United States has not submitted a claim as it has not ratified UNCLOS, though the American government has claimed that its continental shelf extends past its designated exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Its claim also crosses other states’ claims.

51 Rules of Procedure of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, Doc CLCS/40/Rev.1 (17 April 2008), at 5(a), Annex I.

52 CLCS rulings require extensive research and input from scientists from different fields. Consequently, final rulings take considerable time. Joanna Mossop, The Continental Shelf beyond Two Hundred Nautical Miles: Rights and Responsibilities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). At this stage, Greenland/Denmark’s claim will not be ruled on before 2032, and Canada’s will take longer still. Julia Hager, “Russia’s Claim to North Pole Territory Officially Confirmed” (21 February 2023), online: Polar Journal <polarjournal.ch/en/2023/02/21/russias-claim-to-north-pole-territory-officially-confirmed/>.

53 Dodds, supra note 1.

54 CAOFA, supra note 12.

55 Dodds, supra note 1 at 543.

56 Ibid at 544.

57 UNCLOS, supra note 39, art 122.

58 Ibid, art 89.

59 Ibid, art 123.

60 Dodds, supra note 1 at 543

61 Oran R Young & Jong-Deog Kim, “Next Steps in Arctic Ocean Governance: Meeting the Challenge of Coordinating a Dynamic Regime Complex” (2021) 133 Marine Policy 1, online: <doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104726>; Malgorzata Smieszek et al, “The State and Challenges of Arctic Governance in an Era of Transformation” (2021) 4 One Earth 1665 at 1666.

62 Burke, supra note 26.

63 Ibid at 5.

64 Ibid.

65 Ramesh Thakur & Luk Van Langenhove, “Enhancing Global Governance through Regional Integration” (2006) 12 Global Governance 233 at 233.

66 Ibid at 233.

67 Malte Humpert, “Control over the Arctic Ocean Top Priority of New Russian Naval Doctrine,” High North News (4 August 2022), online: <www.highnorthnews.com/en/control-over-arctic-ocean-top-priority-new-russian-naval-doctrine>; Malte Humpert. “New Satellite Images Reveal Extent of Russia’s Military and Economic Build-up in the Arctic,” High North News (3 May 2019), online: <www.highnorthnews.com/en/new-satellite-images-reveal-extent-russias-military-and-economic-build-arctic>; Astri Edvardsen, “Large Army and Navy Exercises in the Nordic Region This Late Fall,” High North News (1 December 2022), online: <www.highnorthnews.com/en/large-army-and-navy-exercises-nordic-region-late-fall>.

68 Bipandeep Sharma, “‘De-securitising the Arctic’ in Climate Change: An Indian Perspective” (2021) 77 India Quarterly 622.

69 Ibid.

70 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTS 107, Can TS 1994 No 7 (entered into force 21 March 1994); Convention on Biological Diversity, 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79 (entered into force 29 December 1993).

71 UNCLOS, supra note 39, art 87.

72 Ibid, art 58.

73 Ibid, art 137.

74 Ibid, art 136.

75 Ibid, art 238.

76 Carrai, Maria Adele, Defraigne, Jean-Christophe & Wouters, Jan, ‘The Belt and Road Initiative and Global Governance: By Way of Introduction’ in Carrai, Maria Adele, Defraigne, Jean-Christophe & Wouters, Jan (eds), The Belt and Road Initiative and Global Governance (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2020) at 2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 Christer Pursiainen, Chris Alden & Rasmus Bertelsen. “The Arctic and Africa in China’s Foreign Policy: How Different Are They and What Does This Tell Us?” (2021) 12 Arctic Rev Law & Policy 31.

78 Nong Hong, “The Melting Arctic and Its Impact on China’s Maritime Transport” (2012) 35 Research in Transportation Economics 50 at 50.

79 State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, China’s Arctic Policy (January 2018), online: <english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2018/01/26/content_281476026660336.htm>.

80 Pursiainen, Alden & Bertelsen, supra note 77; Shiloh Rainwater, “International Law and the ‘Globalization’ of the Arctic: Assessing the Rights of Non-Arctic States in the High North” (2015) 30:1 Emory Intl L Rev 115.

81 Yun Sun, “The Intricacy of China’s Arctic Policy” (2018), online: Stimson <www.stimson.org/2018/intricacy-chinas-arctic-policy/>.

82 State Council Information Office, supra note 79 at 3.

83 Pursiainen, Alden & Bertelsen, supra note 77.

84 Yun Sun, supra note 81.

85 State Council Information Office, supra note 79 at 3.

86 Ibid at 3; Hong, supra note 78; Rainwater, supra note 80.

87 Stephan Keukeleire and Tom Delreux, “Competing Structural Powers and Challenges for the EU’s Structural Foreign Policy” (2015) 1 Global Affairs 43 at 44.

88 State Council Information Office, supra note 79.

89 Hong, supra note 78.

90 Mia Bennett, “China, Japan and South Korea Hold Their Own Arctic Dialogue,” Arctic Today (15 June 2017), online: <arctictoday.com/china-japan-and-south-korea-hold-their-own-arctic-dialogue/>.

91 Pursiainen, Alden & Bertelsen, supra note 77 at 45.

92 State Council Information Office, supra note 79 at 2 [emphasis added].

93 Ibid at 3; Pursiainen, Alden & Bertelsen, supra note 77; Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945, Can TS 1945 No 7 (entered into force 24 October 1945).

94 Yun Sun, supra note 81.

95 State Council Information Office, supra note 79.

96 Ibid at 3 [emphasis added].

97 Ibid [emphasis added].

98 Canada has consistently claimed that the Northwest Passage forms part of Canada’s internal waters according to Article 8 of UNCLOS. UNCLOS, supra note 39, art 8.

99 State Council Information Office, supra note 79 at 9.

100 Pursiainen, Alden & Bertelsen, supra note 77 at 45.

101 Ibid.

102 US Department of State, Secretary of State Michael Pompeo Speech, “Looking North: Sharpening America’s Arctic Focus” (6 May 2019) online: <2017-2021.state.gov/looking-north-sharpening-americas-arctic-focus/index.html>.

103 Indeed, the 2019 Ministerial Meeting was the first to not produce a ministerial declaration due to the United States’ insistence that the declaration makes no reference to climate change. “No Final Declaration after Arctic Council Meeting as US Refuses Mention of Climate Change,” Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty (7 May 2019), online: <www.rferl.org/a/no-final-declaration-after-arctic-council-meeting-as-u-s-refuses-mention-of-climate-change/29926232.html>.

104 Beeson, Mark, “The Limits to Cooperation: Global Governance and the Challenge of Climate Change” in Gok, Gonca Oguz & Mehmetcik, Hakan (eds), The Crisis of Legitimacy in Global Governance (London: Routledge, 2022) at 165 Google Scholar.

105 P Whitney Lackenbauer, Adam Lajeunesse & Paul Dean, “Why China Is Not a Peer Competitor in the Arctic” (2022) Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs 80 at 85.

106 Ibid at 84.

107 United States, Report to Congress Department of Defense Arctic Strategy (Washington, DC: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, 2019).

108 Lackenbauer, Lajeunesse & Dean, supra note 105 at 87.

109 Catherine Tunney, “CSIS Warning Inuit Leaders About Covert Foreign Investment in Arctic, Documents Show,” CBC News (13 October 2023), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/politics/csis-arctic-obed-russia-china-1.6993128>.

110 Walter Strong, “Ottawa Blocks Chinese Takeover of Nunavut Gold Mine Project after National Security Review,” CBC News (22 December 2020), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/canada-china-tmac-1.5851305>; Natalie Pressman, “Experts Warn About Potential Risks of Foreign Investment in Arctic Mining,” CBC News (26 April 2024), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/mining-puts-arctic-at-risk-of-foreign-investment-experts-say-1.7186761>; Lackenbauer, Lajeunesse & Dean, supra note 105.

111 Malte Humpert, “Putin and Xi Discuss Further Deepening of Arctic Partnership,” High North News (24 March 2023), online: <www.highnorthnews.com/en/putin-and-xi-discuss-further-deepening-arctic-partnership>.

112 Lackenbauer, Lajeunesse & Dean, supra note 105 at 88.

113 Thakur & Van Langenhove, supra note 65 at 234–35.

114 Luk Van Langenhove, “Why We Need to ‘Unpack’ Regions to Compare Them More Effectively” (2012) 47 International Spectator 16 at 26.

115 Burke, supra note 26 at 35.

116 Antarctic Treaty, supra note 35.

117 Thakur & Van Langenhove, supra note 65 at 234.

118 UNCLOS, supra note 39, art 8. Canada’s claim is disputed by other States who disagree with Canada’s contentious designation.

119 Ibid, art 2.

120 Ibid, art 56.

121 Ibid, art 77.

122 Ibid, art 193.

123 Ibid, arts 61–68.

124 Ibid, art 77.

125 Ibid, art 77.

126 Ibid, arts 136, 137.

127 Ibid, art 142.

128 Arctic Council Secretariat, Arctic Council Strategic Plan 2021–2030 (20 May 2021) at 6, online: <ac-strategic-plan web.pdf>.

129 Ibid at 15 [emphasis added].

130 UNCLOS, supra note 39, art 192.

131 Ibid, art 194.

132 Ibid, art 197 [emphasis added].

133 Ilulissat Declaration, supra note 37.

134 The Ilulissat Declaration never expressly mentions UNCLOS, instead referring to a “comprehensive international legal framework” since the United States has not ratified the convention, in large part due to the provisions regarding the Area and deep seabed mining, which the American government felt would hinder American business interests. The Ilulissat Declaration, of course, covers the Central Arctic Ocean, the seabed of which is part of “the Area.”

135 Ilulissat Declaration, supra note 37.

136 Ibid.

137 Ibid.

138 UNCLOS, supra note 39, art 234.

139 Ilulissat Declaration, supra note 37.

140 Ibid.

141 Nord, supra note 7 at 13. In Canada, for instance, the Inuit fear that if there is a reliance on UNCLOS’s framework, without regional input and consultation with Arctic Indigenous communities, that “recognition and protection of their Inuit Aboriginal title to ice and water will not be respected.” Anna Sharapova et al, “Indigenous Rights and Interests in a Changing Arctic Ocean: Canadian and Russian Experiences and Challenges” (2022) 13 Arctic Rev Law & Policy 286 at 289.

142 Ilulissat Declaration, supra note 37.

143 UNCLOS, supra note 39, art 122.

144 Ibid, art 123.

145 Ibid.

146 Ibid.

147 Burke, supra note 26 at 6.

148 Ibid at 141.

149 Ibid.

150 Astri Evardsen, “Massive Russian in the Arctic, High North News Overview Shows,” High North News (1 September 2023), online: <www.highnorthnews.com/en/massive-russian-mobilization-arctic-high-north-news-overview-shows>; Trine Jonassen, “Russia Will Stay in the Arctic Council as Long as It Serves Our Interests,” High North News (11 May 2023), online: <www.highnorthnews.com/en/russia-will-stay-arctic-council-long-it-serves-our-interests>.

151 Heather Exner-Pirot & Evan T Bloom, “Opinion: Does the Arctic Council Make Sense without Russia?” National Post (10 November 2022), online: <nationalpost.com/opinion/opinion-does-the-arctic-council-make-sense-without-russia>.

152 Paula Kankaanapää & Oran R Young, “The Effectiveness of the Arctic Council” (2012) 31 Polar Research 1.

153 Koivurova et al, supra note 8 at 53; Canova & Pic, supra note 11.

154 Trine Jonassen, “China: Will Not Acknowledge Arctic Council without Russia,” High North News (15 October 2022), online: <www.highnorthnews.com/en/china-will-not-acknowledge-arctic-council-without-russia>.

155 Burke, supra note 26 at 6–7.

156 Oran R Young & Jong-Deog Kim, “Next Steps in Arctic Ocean Governance: Meeting the Challenge of Coordinating a Dynamic Regime Complex” (2021) 133 Marine Policy 1, online: <doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104726>.

157 Christian Prip, “The Arctic Council and Biodiversity: Need for a Stronger Management Framework?” (2016) 2 Nordic Environmental LJ 37.

158 Carrai, Defraigne & Wouters, supra note 76 at 2.

159 Bennett, supra note 90.

160 Ibid [emphasis added].

161 Ibid.

162 Ibid.

163 William WL Cheung, Reg Watson & Daniel Pauly, “Signature of Ocean Warming in Global Fisheries Catch” (2013) 97 Nature 365.

164 UNCLOS, supra note 39, art 118.

165 Burke, supra note 26 at 171.

166 Canova & Pic, supra note 11.

167 Trine Jonassen, “Russia Threatens to Withdraw from the Arctic Council,” High North News (14 February 2024), online: <www.highnorthnews.com/en/russia-threatens-withdraw-arctic-council>; Evardsen, supra note 150.

168 Jonassen, supra note 167.

169 “Russia Says It Will Take Military-Technical Steps in Response to Sweden’s NATO Accession,” Reuters (28 February 2024), online: <www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-says-it-will-take-military-technical-steps-response-swedens-nato-2024-02-28/>.

170 “One Year into the 2023–2025 Norwegian Chairship: A Q&A with SAO Chair Morten Høglund” (16 May 2024), online: Arctic Council <arctic-council.org/news/one-year-norwegian-chairship/>.

171 State Council Information Office, supra note 79; Rainwater, supra note 80.

172 Young, supra note 22.

173 Van Langenhove, supra note 114 at 17.

174 Kankaanapää & Young, supra note 152 at 12–13.

175 Gonca Oguz Gok & Hakan Mehmetcik, ‘Global Governance and the Crises of Legitimacy: An Introduction’ in Oguz Gok & Mehmetcik, supra note 104, 1 at 1.

176 Ibid at 3.

177 Burke, supra note 26.