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Flying in the Cage: Iranian Theatre Directors’ Creativity in the Face of Censorship

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 January 2025

MEHDI TAJEDDIN
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Abstract

Censorship in Iranian theatre sometimes prevents artists from staging some of the scenes in their plays. Among these are scenes involving embracing, kissing, raping and so on, or scenes containing ideological or political themes. Occasionally, after omitting such scenes, theatre directors try to find suitable alternatives and create a similar effect. The present research, with an analytical–descriptive approach, seeks to focus on alternative solutions, as well as creative models, developed by Iranian directors to circumvent social-regulatory censorship and identify alternatives in performances. In this research, I conduct a comparative analysis of five selected theatre recordings. Using the available theatre recordings, this paper examines the original text of the plays, identifies the omissions resulting from censorship, and analyses directors’ alternative solutions. This research demonstrates that artists use their creativity to express themes, analyses and aesthetic points in the face of censorship and obstacles. The paper focuses on eight creative-performance models that are executed using symbols and auditory elements instead of visual elements, and the function of narrative, stage design, stage direction, costume design, props and cross-dressing as devices to circumvent censorship.

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Article
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Theatre Research International , Volume 49 , Issue 3 , October 2024 , pp. 280 - 298
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of International Federation for Theatre Research

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References

NOTES

1 Aparat website, Ivanov, at www.aparat.com/v/l8903db (accessed 12 June 2024).

2 YouTube, The Cherry Orchard, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=g3spq3QaR_0 (accessed 12 June 2024).

3 Filimo website, Love in the Time of Cholera, at www.filimo.com/m/htpcr (accessed 22 March 2019).

4 YouTube, Macbeth, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z1P-ooN5ySE (accessed 12 June 2024).

5 YouTube, Hamlet, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMbtQxUmsZM (accessed 12 June 2024).

6 Zandian, Mandana, Rereading the Ten Nights: Original Presentations and Recent Perspectives on the Evenings of Literary Readings in Iran in October 1977 (Hamburg: Publication of the Dariush Homayoun Foundation for Constitutionalism Studies, 2013), p. 206Google Scholar.

7 Bahram Beyzai, born in 1938, the well-known Iranian writer and filmmaker, is referred to as the father of Iranian playwrights. He currently lectures at Stanford University in the US.

8 Chekhov, Anton, The Cherry Orchard, trans. Daneshvar, Simin (Tehran: Nil Publication, 1968), p. 57Google Scholar.

9 Ibid., p. 74.

10 Cohen, Joel, Phenomenology of Censorship, trans. Saleh, Shahrokh Tondro (Tehran: Negah Moaser Publication, 2017)Google Scholar.

11 Khosrawi, Fariborz, Censorship (Tehran: Nazar Publication, 2008)Google Scholar.

12 Katouzian, Nasser, The Freedom of Thought and Expression (Tehran: Tehran University Publication, 2003)Google Scholar.

13 Masoumi, Jamshid, Freedom of Expression (Tehran: Mizan Publication, 2017)Google Scholar; Jalili, Vahid, Cinema of Censorship (Tehran: Ma'aref Publication, 2019)Google Scholar.

14 Wikipedia, at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Iran#Chapter_III_[Article_19_to_42]:_Rights, last edited 9 June 2024.

15 The ruling class means all military, economic and social institutions that are managed directly under the supervision of the leader of Iran. The IRGC, the IRGC Intelligence Organization, the army, the police, the Qom Seminary, the Islamic Propaganda Organization, and others, are among this ruling class. Also, since 2021, the president of Iran and his cabinet members also belong to the ruling class.

16 Jafar Panahi, born in 1960, a well-established Iranian director, filmmaker and political prisoner. Some of his movies include Three Faces, Taxi, Offside and The White Balloon.

17 Shakespeare, William, Macbeth, trans. Ahmadi, Abdulrahim (Tehran: Qatreh Publication, 2011), p. 62Google Scholar.

18 Mohandespour, Farhad, ‘Symbols of Space in Macbeth’, Khaneh Ketab Journal, 95 (2006), pp. 76–9Google Scholar, here p. 79.

19 YouTube, Macbeth, minute 35.

20 Ibid., minute 79.

21 Shakespeare, Macbeth, p. 62.

22 ILNA News Agency, at www.ilna.ir/fa/tiny/news-469666 (accessed 31 December 2020).

23 Ghafar Adli in Iran Theater, at https://theater.ir/fa/8692 (accessed 2 April 2020).

24 Cohen, Phenomenology of Censorship, p. 102.

25 YouTube, interview with Arash Dadgar, at https://youtu.be/i5xsawTUnjc (accessed 19 February 2019), minute 1.

26 Zandian, Rereading the Ten Nights, p. 206.

27 Interview with Arash Dadgar, minute 3.

28 Shakespeare, William, Hamlet, trans. Behazin, M. (Tehran: Dowran Publication, 1981), p. 138Google Scholar.

29 Ibid., p. 139.

30 Marquez, Gabriel Garcia, Love in the Time of Cholera, trans. Parsay, Kiumars (Tehran: Ariaban Publication, 2010), p. 97Google Scholar.

31 Ibid., p. 63.

32 Ibid., p. 288.

33 Ibid., p. 291.

34 Khabar Online, interview of Asghar Farhadi in Cannes, at www.khabaronline.ir/news/775709 (accessed 8 June 2023).

35 Shayanfilm Online, Jafar Panahi's answer to Asghar Farhadi's interview, at https://shayanfilm.com/articles/5646 (accessed 8 June 2023).