1.1 National and International Psychological Organizations

As early as 1889, psychologists had begun meeting with colleagues from other universities and cities at international congresses (Reference Pickren, Fowler, Weiner and FreedheimPickren & Fowler, 2003). By 1892, the first national psychological organization, the APA, was founded. Since then, psychological associations have been founded in every continent but Antarctica, and national organizations for psychologists exist in over 80 countries (Reference Pickren, Fowler, Weiner and FreedheimPickren & Fowler, 2003; International Union of Psychological Science, 2021a, 2021b). This expansion created both broadly focused national psychological organizations and more narrowly focused societies specializing in specific professional concerns (see Table 21.1). The latter organizations are comprised of psychologists with similar research interests (e.g., Society of Experimental Social Psychology), applied interests (e.g., Association of Practicing Psychologists), administrative responsibilities (e.g., Society of Psychologists in Management), and employment settings (e.g., National Organization of VA Psychologists) (Reference VandenBosVandenBos, 1989). Other organizations are based not just on the members’ professional responsibilities, but also on their demographic characteristics and how they identify themselves. These include organizations for students (e.g., the American Psychological Association of Graduate Students, APAGS), ethnic minorities (e.g., Society of Indian Psychologists), and geographic locations (e.g., California Psychological Association, Middle Eastern Psychological Network). Finally, many psychologists participate in organizations whose membership includes other disciplines, such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) or the English Association for Child Psychology and Psychiatry (ACPP).

Table 21.1Illustrative list of psychological associations

From Reference VandenBosVandenBos (1989)

1.2 The Function of Professional Organizations within Psychology

All organizations have a mission statement governing their activities. APA’s mission statement, for example, is “Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives,” while the International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP)’s mission is “to promote the science and practice of applied psychology and to facilitate interaction and communication among applied psychologists around the world” (APA, 2021a; IAAP, 2021). Most psychological associations adhere to a similar mission of advancing the field to benefit science and society. How they pursue these missions, of course, varies tremendously. APA, for example, recently outlined a strategic plan to describe its vision for implementing its mission (Table 21.2).

Table 21.2American Psychological Association Strategic Plan (www.apa.org/about/apa/strategic-plan)

One of the primary means of advancing the profession is through the advancement of knowledge. To that end, most organizations sponsor regular conferences that serve as opportunities to exchange information about recent advances in practice and research. Both IAAP and the International Union of Psychological Sciences (IUPsyS), for example, hold meetings every four years, while the European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations (EFPA) meets every other year (Reference Fowler and KazdinFowler, 2000). Other organizations, such as APA, hold yearly conventions. During the 2020–2021 COVID-19 pandemic, many organizations experimented with virtual conferences or extended webinar series as a substitute for face-to-face meetings. By and large, these new formats permitted members who might otherwise not have been able to travel to participate in an in-person event to benefit from the rich content.

Journals also advance the knowledge of the field through their role in exchanging information. Nearly every national organization publishes a journal tailored to the interests of its members. These organizational journals are typically available in virtual or print formats with several additional journals being online only. Like conferences, these journals provide an opportunity for members to share their own expertise and to benefit from the expertise of others as well as to contribute to the literature of the discipline. For instance, APA’s Division 44, Society for the Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, publishes Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, a quarterly scholarly journal dedicated to the dissemination of information and research that impacts practice, education, public policy, and social action related to LGBTQ+ issues.

In addition to their journals, many organizations offer hard copy and virtual newsletters containing information in a more succinct and readable format. Whether they take the form of magazines, like the APA Monitor on Psychology, a more traditional newsletter format or a topical approach like the Society for Research in Child Development’s (SRCD) Social Policy Report Briefs, these newsletters serve a vital information-sharing function. Without newsletters, journals, and conferences, no psychologist, regardless of their training, would remain competent in the field for more than a few years after completing graduate school.

Beyond information sharing, psychological organizations serve several other critical functions. As Reference Pickren, Fowler, Weiner and FreedheimPickren and Fowler (2003) point out, these organizations serve several “gatekeeping” functions. They may determine who can call themselves psychologists or identify themselves as experts in a subspecialty of the field. Through accreditation of continuing education classes, they can influence what people study after completing their degrees, and what they can get credit for studying. In many countries, membership in the national psychological organizations is a prerequisite for licensure. Their journals and conferences also determine what information is communicated to the field and how credible it will be when it is disseminated. Fortunately, most organizations exercise this power wisely, because they are themselves governed by the psychologists who make up their membership. In addition, most societies have a complex system of checks and balances that help the system function fairly and democratically (Reference Fowler, O’Donohue and FisherFowler, 1999).

2.1 A Professional Home

Professional associations, quite simply, provide psychologists with a way to remain current in the field and to develop their professional identity. Without them, psychologists would function in a vacuum. Beyond those global benefits, however, professional associations provide many less obvious ones. In the first place, they provide a place where like-minded psychologists can come together to focus on the issues of most importance to them. Many associations are organized around the unique characteristics and interests of their members. Examples include the Association of Black Psychologists, the Asian-American Psychological Association, the Association of Lesbian and Gay Psychologists, and the Association of Women in Psychology. The 60 state, provincial, and territorial associations affiliated with APA represent a vital home for many psychologists. Other associations organize themselves around topics of interest, such as the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors or the Association for Jungian Psychology. APA’s 54 divisions also reflect a wide array of interests from experimental psychology to psychological hypnosis to the study of sexual and gender identity. In all cases, people choose to affiliate with these specialized groups to find a professional home. Professional associations and their divisions and affiliates serve that function.

2.2 National and International Cross-Pollination

In addition to providing a professional home, these associations can create unique networks for cross-national and even international collaboration. The APA, for example, has initiated the MOU (memoranda of understanding) Partner Program, which promotes collaborative relationships with national psychology associations around the world to share resources, develop opportunities for discussion and exchange, and foster a productive alliance. This program provides opportunities to build international partnerships and create opportunities for APA and APAGS members to be exposed to organized psychology outside of the US through attending conferences, workshops and other activities hosted by MOU partner associations. In recent years, the program has sent delegations to Colombia, Mexico, South Africa, Ireland, Portugal, England, and Germany (APA, 2020). These cross-pollination opportunities strengthen the field by creating international linkages and compelling psychologists to look at issues from the perspectives of different nations and cultures. The cognitive behavioral approach so dominant in the US, for example, is less-favored in many other countries, so collaboration engenders broader perspectives on methodology and theory as well as application.

2.3 Interaction with Leaders and Potential Mentors

Interaction with colleagues is a vital component of professional development. Professional organizations offer an excellent opportunity for emerging psychologists to associate with other psychologists and develop their own professional identity. Through that interaction, graduate students and early-career psychologists gain access to content experts and potential mentors while developing a sense of belonging within their discipline. Only at national conferences are young professionals likely to interact with renowned researchers and have the opportunity to hear them speak. The leaders in the field, regardless of the specific domain or subdiscipline, typically belong to national organizations. After all, it is primarily through the mechanisms organizations provide, such as journals, conferences, and online interactive webinars, that leaders in the field emerge.

These meetings provide one additional benefit to young psychologists and graduate students. At most of the conferences sponsored by professional societies, students can be part of panels or can present their research at poster sessions. In this way, they contribute to the meetings as well as benefiting from them.

2.4 Resources

Many organizations offer a wealth of resources to their members. In addition to the primary journals that are usually a benefit of membership, many organizations offer additional journals for more specialized interests. In addition to the American Psychologist, which goes to every APA member, APA publishes over 60 hard and virtual journals. Publishing with APA, for example, provides a valuable link to a community of hundreds of Editors and Associate Editors, and more than 70,000 editorial board members and reviewers who select and publish approximately 5000 articles each year (APA, 2021b). Other informational resources include newsletters, books, electronic information databases such as PsychINFO, and web-based resources.

The resources offered by these national organizations extend far beyond what may typically come to mind. The Ethics Office at APA, for example, provides guidance through written materials, websites, and staff members who are subject matter experts on ethical questions that arise in research and practice settings, as well as other dilemmas that may occur during graduate school (i.e., harassment or dual-role questions). Several organizations also provide guidance on issues regarding human subjects and animal research. Another resource at APA is the Office of Testing, which serves as a source of information about the use of tests and assessments in clinical, counseling, educational, and employment settings. In yet another example, the APA Center for Workforce Studies conducts ongoing studies that provide timely statistics on students entering and graduating from psychology doctoral programs, psychologists’ salaries, employment settings, marketplace trends and more (see www.apa.org/workforce). Other resources available through psychological organizations range from employment assistance to financial assistance for students.

2.5 Fellowships, Awards, Scholarships, and Grants

Many national organizations provide unique opportunities for their members to receive various fellowships, scholarships, grants and awards. For example, each year APA’s graduate student group, APAGS, grants competitive scholarships to graduate students in psychology and awards of excellence to graduate students, mentors, and psychology departments (see www.apa.org/apags). Many other student scholarships, grants, and awards of recognition are sponsored by various national, state, and local psychological associations, as well as divisions of larger organizations (for other examples within APA, see www.apa.org/students). In addition, organizations such as APA and SRCD sponsor fellowships for doctoral-level professionals to come to Washington, DC for a year and participate in the policymaking process through work at federal agencies, congressional offices, or a national organization’s policy office (www.apa.org/about/awards/congress-fellow). These Fellowships are open, but not limited to, early-career psychologists, who often compete successfully for these positions.

3.1 National Initiatives

Many individual psychologists have something to contribute to our social welfare and wish to do so, but lack a mechanism for sharing their knowledge or time. National organizations are well positioned to develop initiatives that can impact society at a broader level. Two recent APA projects serve as examples of the kind of initiatives only a large organization can undertake. In 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, APA launched “Equity Flattens the Curve.” This initiative was “based on the assumption that to combat the pandemic we must tackle the bias, stigma, and discrimination at the root of inequities and ensure that all strategies and solutions are delivered equitably.” The initiative focused on four common goals:

1. 1. Reduce bias, stigma, and discrimination related to the COVID-19 pandemic to advance health equity.

2. 2. Connect voices in health equity, public health, and psychology to educate policymakers and leaders about how centering equity can flatten the curve.

3. 3. Promote social cohesion, inclusion, and equity to slow the spread of the virus.

4. 4. Promote policies and practices that reduce inequity and address public health needs of diverse populations now and in the future.

This initiative encompassed many actions including information sharing opportunities for APA members, a virtual resource center, expert working groups, and a networking platform to facilitate community engagement.

In 2020, APA also established a Climate Change Task Force for the purpose of strengthening the role of psychology in addressing global climate change. These kinds of initiatives leverage association resources to address large-scale challenges in ways that would be impossible for individual psychologists, no matter how talented. Plus, they provide ways for early-career psychologists to engage in topics of national and international significance.

3.2 Advocacy for Psychological Research and Practice

Legislation and regulation have a significant impact on all areas of psychology. Many national organizations have Washington-based policy offices that advocate on behalf of psychological research and practice. Given the constant battle for recognition of the value of behavioral and social science research, these efforts are critical to the field of psychology. Psychologists and psychology graduate students who have received funding for their research from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Science Foundation (NSF), or other federal agencies probably have the policy staff of a professional organization to thank for their money. National organizations with practitioner members also focus a great deal of effort on issues of interest to clinicians, such as parity in insurance coverage between mental health and physical health. These efforts may also include special attention to the needs of graduate students. In this regard, APA lobbies actively for funding for the Minority Fellowship Program, which supports graduate students of color, and for other loan reimbursement and scholarship programs for psychology graduate students. The voice of national psychological organizations is critical in these efforts, as most of these programs focused exclusively on medical professions and excluded psychology until recently.

Although much of this advocacy provides direct benefit to psychologists and psychology graduate students, that is not always the aim. Some organizations, such as APA or SRCD, also advocate for programs and services benefiting the populations psychologists serve and research. As an example, APA and SRCD have both been highly involved in the reauthorizations of the federal Head Start and Elementary and Secondary Education programs. Although these programs do not necessarily benefit psychology directly, the work of psychologists is critical to the understanding of both social and cognitive development. For that reason, these organizations were willing to allocate resources to inform policymakers about relevant research so that federal policy might reflect current knowledge from the field.

It is not only paid advocacy staff who effect policy change. National organizations provide opportunities for their members to become involved in the process as well. Following the Columbine shootings, for example, nearly a dozen psychologists were invited to testify before the Senate Commerce and Health, Education, Labor and Pensions Committees, the House Judiciary Committee, the Congressional Children’s Caucus, and at a special closed briefing for members of Congress and their staff convened by Senator Edward Kennedy (D-MA) and Representative Bobby Scott (D-VA) through the auspices of the APA. In recent years, psychologists representing various national organizations have testified before Congress on issues such as child maltreatment, women’s health, terrorism response, and the COVID-19 pandemic. These testimonies can have great influence on the congressional committees developing federal initiatives.

While testifying before Congress is an exciting opportunity, it is also a rare one. Many other opportunities exist, however, for psychology graduate students and psychologists to become involved in policymaking. Most national organizations have electronic listservs, newsletters, and other vehicles for keeping their members informed about current policy issues affecting their work and providing them with information about how to get involved on a particular issue. Many State Psychological Associations also have advocacy initiatives they are promoting at the state and local level. These include parity initiatives, questions about independent licensure, and other issues of local interest. Typically, any member of a society can get involved in these efforts by signing up for an electronic of fax list.

4.1 APA: A Case Study

Many psychologists find professional organizations to be a vital part of their careers. With over 121,000 members and affiliates, APA is the largest association in the world representing organized psychology. APA members are primarily doctoral-level psychologists, about a third of whom are employed in educational settings, a third in private clinical practice, and a third in other settings such as hospitals, clinics, business, industry, and government (Reference FowlerFowler, 2002), and psychology graduate students. Affiliates include high school teachers of psychology, master’s level mental health professionals, psychologists in other countries, and others.

After beginning as an academic-focused organization, APA reorganized in 1945 to incorporate several smaller psychological organizations, evolving into a new organization with a mission that included both professional and scientific issues, as well as the application of psychology to the public interest (see Table 21.2). Over time, a multifaceted structure that included divisions and state psychological associations developed, reflecting the diversity of the field and APA’s members. Today, APA has approximately 500 employees, publishes a number of highly respected journals, has a respected book publishing arm, holds an annual convention attended by 8000–12,000 people, provides a monthly magazine to members, and houses multiple offices to address a variety of issues with the goal of advancing psychology as a science and profession in the legislative, public, academic, and research realms (Reference Fowler and KazdinFowler, 2000; APA 2021b).

4.2 Divisional Involvement and Officers

Beyond the activities mentioned above, psychological associations such as APA offers many other benefits to its members. For example, students may participate in a variety of meetings and conferences, including the annual APA convention, or join any of APA’s 54 divisions, enabling them to associate with psychologists and student colleagues who share similar professional interests. Divisions range in size from 300 to 7500 members, with each focusing on a clinical or research interest, or some personal or other factor. Often the personal and research interests overlap – for example, APA has divisions on school psychology, developmental psychology, and child clinical psychology – so these categories are clearly not exclusive. All the divisions have officers and executive committees (sometimes referred to as boards). These committees provide excellent opportunities to learn about association leadership and to influence the direction of the division. Furthermore, a majority of the Divisions include a graduate student representative on the executive committee, with the depth of graduate students increasing yearly. All Divisions also have newsletters that frequently welcome articles from the membership, providing opportunities for students and early-career professionals to contribute to scientific, although not necessarily peer-reviewed, publications. Some divisions also have divisional journals or other publications that provide information on the domain of interest to the members and provide additional publishing opportunities. Detailed information about APA’s divisions are linked through www.apa.org/divisions.

Much of the work of the Association is completed by member volunteers who serve on APA’s various Boards and Committees. These groups report to the Council of Representatives, APA’s most powerful governance group. Boards and Committees carry out a wide range of tasks as evidenced by their names (see Table 21.3) and may frequently have student members or liaisons. Association activities and interests are not limited to the topics of the various continuing Boards and Committees. APA Task Forces and Ad Hoc Committees are formed to address time-limited or newly identified issues that are important to APA members and to psychology in general. Some examples of recent Task Forces and Ad Hoc Committees include: the Ad Hoc Committee on Early Career Psychologists, the Task Force on Psychology in Early Education and Care, the Advisory Committee on Colleague Assistance, the Work Group on Professional Practice Issues in Telehealth, the Working Group on Children’s Mental Health, the Electronic Resources Advisory Committee, the Task Force on Serious Mental Illness/Severe Emotional Disturbance, the Joint Committee on Testing Practices, and the Task Force on Statistical Inference, just to name a few. Members of these groups can usually be self-nominated or nominated by peers, and graduate students should not be reluctant to nominate themselves for graduate student slots on these committees. Early-career professionals should also consider volunteering to serve on these groups as well.

Table 21.3APA boards and committees

5.1 Involvement in APAGS

There are numerous opportunities for students to become actively involved in APAGS and develop their leadership talents. Students can run for an elected position on the APAGS Committee, or on one of APAGS subcommittee. Some of the past subcommittees have included the Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs; the Committee on Students with Disability Issues; the Convention Committee; the Committee on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Concerns; and the Advocacy Coordinating Team (ACT), which focuses on national and state legislation that impacts psychology.

5.2 APAGS and Career Development

APAGS offers programs and information on topics such as: the business aspects of psychology; internship; post-doctoral training; completing your dissertation; finding a mentor; balancing work and career; negotiating job offers; presenting and publishing research; and various career paths in psychology. In addition, APAGS information is accessible through the APA website and there is a plethora of resources to help students and early career psychologists prepare for licensure, understand basic business strategies to build an independent practice, get on insurance panels, obtain grants, and pursue the tenure track (see www.apa.org/earlycareer/ and www.apa.org/apags).