Network models derived from graph theory

Graph theory emerged from Leonard Euler’s work in the 18th century, inspired by his exploration of the seven bridges of Königsberg (Barabási and Pósfai, Reference Barabási and Pósfai2016). This mathematical discipline began with Euler’s solution to whether a path could traverse each bridge exactly once, marking the inception of graph theory. Since then, the field has flourished, finding applications across various domains such as communication science (e.g., social media networks), economics, geology, and physics. Graph theory’s impact extends notably to systems biology, where it models complex interactions within biological systems.

Early representations of proteins as graphs were performed by Vishveswara and co-workers reporting topological networks of biomolecules (Brinda and Vishveshwara, Reference Brinda and Vishveshwara2005) and by the group of Luthey-Schulten, who proposed a protocol to study the dynamic allosteric communication in biomolecules based on their studies on a tRNA synthase (Sethi et al., Reference Sethi, Eargle, Black and Luthey-Schulten2009). The authors used correlation analysis to construct graphs that represent long-range communication (Figure 1). In these dynamical network models, the biomolecular system is represented as a graph where nodes correspond to amino acids (Cα atoms) and nucleotides (P atoms, N1 in purines and N9 in pyrimidines) (Melo et al., Reference Melo, Bernardi, de la Fuente-Nunez and Luthey-Schulten2020), and edges denote their connections. The length of edges reflects the degree of correlations, positioning strongly correlated nodes closer together (resulting in shorter edges). This approach fundamentally builds upon correlation analysis for identifying dynamic correlations between spatially distant sites.

Figure 1.

Biomolecular dynamic network. Overview of a biomolecular complex (a) and its representation as a network of nodes and edges (b) through correlation analysis. In panel a, the CRISPR-Cas9 system (PDB 4UN3) represents a typical protein/nucleic acid complex. Adapted with permission from Palermo et al.(Palermo et al., Reference Palermo, Ricci and Fernando2017) Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. In panel b, a network map is shown from Pacific RISA Core Network Map Eigenvector FA2 Region 10 K (https://www.flickr.com/photos/pacificrisa/11345330443 (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)).

One common method is cross-correlation analysis, which involves computing Pearson’s correlations between the fluctuations of Cα atoms relative to their average positions (Freddolino et al., Reference Freddolino, Gardner and Schulten2013). The cross-correlation coefficients, $ {CC}_{ij} $ , are computed over the course of the simulation using equation (1), where $ {\Delta }_{ri} $ and $ {\Delta }_{rj} $ are the fluctuation vectors of the atoms $ i $ and $ j $ , respectively. The angle bracket represents an average over the sampled period. The value of $ {CC}_{ij} $ ranges from −1 to 1. Positive $ {CC}_{ij} $ values represented a correlated motion between atoms $ i $ and $ j $ , while negative $ {CC}_{ij} $ values describe anticorrelated motions.

(1) $$ {CC}_{ij}=\frac{\left\langle \Delta \overrightarrow{r_i}(t)\cdot \Delta \overrightarrow{r_j}(t)\right\rangle }{{\left(\left\langle \Delta \overrightarrow{r_i}{(t)}^2\right\rangle\;\left\langle \Delta \overrightarrow{r_j}{(t)}^2\right\rangle \right)}^{\frac{1}{2}}} $$

This approach helps reveal patterns of coordinated motion within biomolecular systems but overlooks correlated motions that occur out of phase (i.e., that are not collinear), prompting for the use of alternative correlation analysis approaches. The Generalized Correlation (GC) method (Lange and Grubmüller, Reference Lange and Grubmüller2006) assesses the correlation between residues by considering mutual information, which captures non-linear correlations. Through this method, two variables ( $ {x}_i $ , $ {x}_j $ ) can be considered correlated when their joint probability distribution $ p\left({x}_i,{x}_j\right), $ is larger than the product of their marginal distributions $ p\left({x}_i\right)\cdot p\left({x}_j\right) $ . The mutual information ( $ MI $ ) is a measure of the degree of correlation between $ {x}_i $ and $ {x}_j $ defined as a function of, $ p\left({x}_i,{x}_j\right) $ $ p({x}_i),\hskip2pt p({x}_j) $ according to:

(2) $$ MI\;\left[{x}_i,{x}_j\right]=\iint p\left({x}_i,{x}_j\right)\mathit{\ln}\frac{p\left({x}_i,{x}_j\right)}{p\left({x}_i\right)\cdot p\left({x}_j\right)}d{x}_id{x}_j $$

Notably, $ MI $ is closely related to the definition of the Shannon entropy, $ H\left[x\right] $ , i.e., the expectation value of the information of a random variable $ x $ , with probability distribution $ p\left({x}_i\right) $ :

(3) $$ H[x]=-\int p(x)\mathrm{ln}p(x)dx $$

and thus it can be computed as:

(4) $$ MI\;\left[{x}_i,{x}_j\right]=H\;\left[{x}_i\right]+H\;\left[{x}_j\right]-H\;\left[{x}_i,{x}_j\right] $$

Where $ H\;\left[{x}_i\right] $ and $ H\;\left[{x}_j\right] $ are the marginal Shannon entropies, and $ H\;\left[{x}_i,{x}_j\right] $ is the joint entropy. Since $ MI $ varies from $ 0\; to+\infty $ , normalized generalized correlation coefficients ( $ {GC}_{ij} $ ), ranging from 0 (independent variables) to 1 (fully correlated variables), are defined as:

(5) $$ {GC}_{ij}\;\left[{x}_i,{x}_j\right]={\left\{1-{e}^{-\frac{2 MI\left[{x}_i,{x}_j\right]}{d}}\right\}}^{-\frac{1}{2}} $$

where $ d=3 $ is the dimensionality of $ {x}_i $ and $ {x}_j $ . In this approach, the marginal and joint Shannon entropies for atomic vector displacements are computed as ensemble averages over multiple trajectories. Since the correlated motions are derived from mutual information, this method effectively identifies any form of dependence in atomic motions, irrespective of their directional relationships. Building on this correlation analysis approach, one can create detailed graph models of proteins and nucleic acids that reveal insights into their structural and functional dynamics (Rivalta et al., Reference Rivalta, Sultan and Lee2012; Gasper et al. Reference Gasper, Fuglestad, Komives, Markwick and McCammon2012; Miao et al. Reference Miao, Nichols, Gasper, Metzger and McCammon2013). Correlation analysis is also extremely helpful per se, to identify the coupled dynamics of spatially distant sites, which is at the basis of allostery in biomolecules (Guo and Zhou, Reference Guo and Zhou2016). As an example, it was used to describe how DNA binding induces coupled protein dynamics and triggers activation of the Cas12a genome editing system (Figure 2a). Cas12a is an extraordinarily rapid enzyme that enables the swift and ultrasensitive detection of nucleic acids (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Ma and Harrington2018) through the DETECTR technology. This technology has been instrumental in detecting the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus during the COVID-19 pandemic (Broughton et al., Reference Broughton, Deng and Yu2020). As part of the tremendous effort to combat COVID-19 through MD simulations (Arantes et al., Reference Arantes, Saha and Palermo2020), extensive MD simulations of Cas12a were carried out (Rossetti et al., Reference Rossetti, Merlo and Bagheri2022; Saha et al., Reference Saha, Ahsan and Arantes2024; Strohkendl et al., Reference Strohkendl, Saha and Moy2024). Correlation analysis on MD trajectories of Cas12a was performed before and after DNA binding (i.e., by comparing the RNA- and DNA-bound forms).

Figure 2.

Correlation analysis of Cas12a. a. Overview of the CRISPR-Cas12a complex. The Cas12a protein is shown as molecular surface, highlighting the individual domains using different colours (REC1: light grey, REC2: dark grey, PAM-interacting, PI: red, RuvC: blue, Nuc: green). Nucleic acids are shown as ribbons. b-c. Cross-correlation (CC, upper triangles) and generalized correlations (GC, lower triangles) matrices were computed for Cas12a in both the RNA-bound state (b) and upon DNA binding (c). The strength of the CC and GC coefficients is represented according to the scales on the right. The protein sequence is also displayed. Boxes highlight anticorrelated motions (CC ≤ 0) and highly coupled GC between REC and NUC, which are also illustrated in the cartoon of Cas12a (a). Adapted with permission from Saha et al.(Saha et al. Reference Saha, Arantes and Hsu2020) Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.

The cross-correlations matrix (i.e., a two-by-two plot of the Cα $ CC $ coefficients) of Cas12a shows a conserved pattern of correlated/anticorrelated motions in both RNA- and DNA- bound states (Figure 2b). Notably, the recognition lobe (REC) of the enzyme preserves anticorrelated motions (i.e., $ CC<0 $ ) with the nuclease lobe (NUC).

This indicates a tendency for REC to move in the opposite direction relative to NUC, facilitating the ‘open-to-close’ conformational transition characteristic of Cas proteins (Palermo et al., Reference Palermo, Miao and Walker2016), which is essential for nucleic acid binding. The generalized correlation matrix, which goes beyond the reach of Pearson-like $ CC $ analysis, shows that while in the RNA-bound state of Cas12a coupled motions are mainly detected among the REC lobe, upon DNA binding, correlated motions of the REC and NUC lobes become more prominent (Figure 2c). This revealed that DNA binding induces a switch in the conformational dynamics of Cas12a, activating the distal REC and NUC lobes to enable nucleic acid cleavage. Notably, the highly coupled dynamics of the REC2 and NUC regions suggest that REC2 could regulate the nuclease function, similar to the CRISPR-associated nuclease Cas9 (Dagdas et al., Reference Dagdas, Chen, Sternberg and Doudna2017; Palermo et al., Reference Palermo, Chen and Ricci2018). These mutual domain dynamics may be critical for the nonspecific binding of DNA and the mechanistic functioning of DETECTR technology (Broughton et al., Reference Broughton, Deng and Yu2020). Since REC is a key determinant of the system’s specificity, these findings also provided a rational basis for engineering improved genome editing and viral detection tools.

Graph construction and community network analysis

As introduced above, networks are constructed by ‘weighting’ the edges through correlations obtained through dynamics, where the weight ( $ {w}_{ij} $ ) of the edge between nodes $ i $ and $ j $ is computed as:

(6) $$ {w}_{ij}=-\mathrm{log}[{GC}_{ij}] $$

This ‘weighted graph’ represents the system as a dynamic network that highlights critical nodes crucial for communication within the complex (Figure 1). Two nodes are commonly considered connected if any heavy atom of the two residues is within 5 Å of each other (i.e., distance cutoff) for at least the 75% of the simulation time (i.e., frame cutoff). These cutoffs are selected according to extensive convergence studies following community network analysis (CNA). In this analysis, a set of ‘communities’ can be identified as groups of nodes with dense internal connections but sparse connections between groups. These local substructures can be detected using the Girvan-Newman algorithm, a divisive method that partitions the network based on ‘edge betweenness’ (EB). The EB, $ g(v) $ , is defined as:

(7) $$ g(v)=\sum \limits_{s\ne v\ne t}\frac{\sigma_{st}(v)}{\sigma_{st}} $$

where $ {\sigma}_{st}(v) $ is the total number of shortest paths from node $ s $ to node $ t $ that crosses the edge $ v $ , whereas $ {\sigma}_{st} $ is the total number of shortest pathways existing between nodes $ s $ and $ t $ . Edges with the highest betweenness connect multiple pairs of nodes through the shortest paths, serving as critical links between different communities. Hence, pairs of nodes associated with edges of high betweenness are crucial for communication flow within the weighted network. It quantifies the ‘traffic’ flowing through edges, measuring how often an edge serves as a bridge in the communication flow between nodes. Using the EB parameter, the Girvan-Newman algorithm (Newman and Girvan, Reference Newman and Girvan2004) establishes community structure through an iterative process. Here, the edge with the highest betweenness is removed from the network, and the betweenness of the remaining edges is recalculated. As the process continues, it progressively isolates communities until the network is divided into the desired number of communities, or each node represents its own community. The optimal division of the network should ensure that each community contains nodes that are highly interconnected internally, while different communities are poorly interconnected. Toward this end, the ‘modularity’ parameter, denoted as $ Q $ , measures the strength or quality of the community structure and is used to determine the optimal division of the network. $ Q $ represents the difference in probability between intra-community and inter-community connections for a given network division and is defined as follows:

(8) $$ Q=\sum \limits_i({e}_{ii}-{a}_i^2) $$

where $ {e}_{ii} $ is the fraction of edges that link nodes in community $ i $ to other nodes in community $ i $ , while $ {a}_i={\sum}_j{e}_{ij} $ is the fraction of edges that connect to at least one node in the community $ i $ . The modularity value falls in the range of 0 to 1, with larger values indicating higher community structure quality.

The convergence of the community repartitioning is important to estimate the appropriate distance and frame cutoff for CNA. The Community Repartition Difference (CRD) is defined as:

(9) $$ CRD\;\left({c}_{1,}{c}_2\right)=1-\frac{\sum_{n_i,{n}_j}z\left({n}_i,{n}_j,{c}_1\right)\;z\left({n}_i,{n}_j,{c}_2\right)}{\sum_{n_i,{n}_j}z\left({n}_i,{n}_j,{c}_1\right)\;} $$

where $ z\left({n}_i,{n}_j,{c}_i\right) $ is defined as 1 if nodes $ {n}_i $ and $ {n}_j $ belong to the same community in a given partition $ {c}_i $ (i.e., the community structure) and 0 otherwise. CRD provides a normalized count of pairs that are grouped together in two community structures, offering a reliable estimate of the similarities between different network partitions. By computing the CRD for different frame and distance cutoffs, one can evaluate the convergence of the community structure and evaluate the appropriate cutoff values.

Overall, in a typical community network visualization, communities are linked by bonds whose thickness corresponds to the total EB corresponding to the intercommunity edges, indicating the strength of communication between communities. Indeed, the total EB between pairs of communities serves as a significant indicator of their communication strength. This metric helps in understanding the extent to which communities within a network are interconnected and how strongly they influence each other’s dynamics and functions.

Community network analysis (CNA) was applied to the CRISPR-Cas9 system to characterize the allosteric role of the Protospacer Adjacent Motif (PAM) which is a short DNA sequence that facilitates targeting of the desired DNA sequence across the genome by the Cas9 enzyme (Figure 3a) (Jinek et al., Reference Jinek, Chylinski and Fonfara2012). Biochemical studies indicated that in CRISPR-Cas9, PAM binding activates the concerted function of the two catalytic domains, HNH and RuvC, which are located distally from PAM (Sternberg et al., Reference Sternberg, Redding and Jinek2014, Reference Sternberg, LaFrance, Kaplan and Doudna2015). Upon PAM binding, the striking conformational plasticity of HNH would activate its nuclease function while simultaneously activating the other RuvC nuclease, leading to the cleavage of both of the DNA strands through a mechanism that involves metal ions (Casalino et al., Reference Casalino, Nierzwicki, Jinek and Palermo2020; Nierzwicki et al., Reference Nierzwicki, East and Binz2022). However, the allosteric mechanism by which PAM binding communicates with the HNH and RuvC domains remained unknown. CNA identified communities of closely correlated residues and quantified the strength of correlations between them, represented by a set of nodes and edges weighted according to GCs (vide supra) (Palermo et al., Reference Palermo, Ricci and Fernando2017). When comparing the structural communities in Cas9 with and without PAM (wPAM and w/oPAM, respectively), CNA revealed that PAM binding reduces the number of communities (Figure 3b), thereby enhancing allosteric signalling.

Figure 3.

Community Network Analysis (CNA) of CRISPR-Cas9. a. Overview of the CRISPR-Cas9 system, highlighting the individual domains using different colours (⍺-helical lobe: light grey, PAM-interacting C-terminal: red, RuvC: blue, HNH: green). Nucleic acids are shown as ribbons. A close-up view shows the PAM recognition region, highlighting the PAM sequence in red). b. CNA of CRISPR-Cas9 in the absence of PAM (without PAM, w/oPAM, left) and upon PAM binding (with PAM, wPAM, right), shown in a 2D representation of the community network. Bonds connect communities and measure their intercommunication strength. Adapted with permission from Ricci et al.(Ricci et al., Reference Ricci, Chen and Miao2019) Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society; and from Palermo et al.(Palermo et al., Reference Palermo, Ricci and Fernando2017) Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society.

In the absence of PAM, the communities are significantly more fragmented, weakening the essential correlations for effective allosteric signalling. Additionally, PAM strengthens the correlation between communities #1 and #8, which comprise the RuvC and HNH domains, respectively. This is depicted in Figure 3b by a thicker bond between these communities. The connection between communities #1 and #8 is notably weaker in the absence of PAM due to the increased fragmentation. Thus, PAM clearly induces a stronger communication channel between the HNH and RuvC domains, activating their catalytic activity and offering a rationale for previous biochemical studies (Sternberg et al., Reference Sternberg, Redding and Jinek2014, Reference Sternberg, LaFrance, Kaplan and Doudna2015).

Shortest path calculations

Network analysis provides valuable insights by identifying ‘shortest pathways’ between distally located node pairs using algorithms like Floyd-Warshall (Floyd, Reference Floyd1962). The shortest path calculation involves finding the path between a pair of nodes such that the sum of weights of constituent edges is minimized. These pathways often represent efficient communication routes among allosteric sites and help identify ‘signal transducers’ in biomolecular systems. The Floyd-Warshall algorithm sums the edge lengths ( $ {w}_{ij} $ ) across different paths to identify the shortest path. It is a well-established tool for shortest-path calculations, which finds the optimal route for all node pairings. Another useful algorithm for shortest path calculations is the Dijkstra algorithm (Dijkstra, Reference Dijkstra1959), commonly used in cartography to find the shortest routes to destinations. As opposed to Floyd-Warshall, which is best for finding the shortest path between all pairs of nodes, especially in a dense network, Dijkstra is best when the shortest path between a single node and all other nodes is required, especially for sparse graphs. The algorithm’s shortest path search begins with defined starting and destination points and aims to minimize the total distance (maximize correlation) between nodes connected by ( $ {w}_{ij} $ ) inter-node connections (Figure 4a). Together, these shortest path algorithms are remarkable for uncovering the potential pathways through which molecular signals propagate. It is important to note, however, that in large biological systems, the number of possible pathways between distant nodes grows with the interconnectedness of nodes. Moreover, signalling transfer within biomolecular systems does not always follow a single optimal path; instead, it can involve a variety of alternative sub-optimal routes. For this reason, shortest path analysis commonly integrates the top sub-optimal routes alongside the shortest ‘optimal’ pathway in the evaluation of the signal transduction.

Figure 4.

Shortest path calculation. a. The Dijkstra algorithm is used for shortest path calculation by defining a starting point and a destination (i.e., nodes A and C) and iteratively optimizing the path from the former to the latter. In each iteration, the algorithm designates the closest unvisited node as the current node, updating the distances to the remaining unvisited nodes until the destination is reached. For biomolecular allostery, the algorithm employs correlation coefficients as metrics to identify the closest nodes (i.e., $ {w}_{ij}=- logCG $ ) thereby maximizing the correlation between the starting and destination nodes. b. In the context of the HNH domain of CRISPR-Cas9, the Dijkstra algorithm identifies an allosteric pathway connecting the DNA recognition region (REC2) to the RuvC cleavage site. The signaling route identified through this algorithm (illustrated by the pink line) overlaps with the slow dynamic residues found through solution NMR (represented by purple spheres). Adapted with permission from East et al.(East et al., Reference East, Newton and Morzan2020a) Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.

Shortest path analysis through the Dijkstra algorithm was used to find the shortest pathways that connect the sites of DNA binding (i.e., three recognition domains, REC1–3) with the nuclease domains (i.e., HNH and RuvC) in CRISPR-Cas9 (Figure 4b). In this study, shortest path analyses were performed on MD trajectories obtained through enhanced sampling, using a Gaussian accelerated MD (GaMD) approach (Miao et al., Reference Miao, Feher and McCammon2015; Wang et al., Reference Wang, Arantes and Bhattarai2021), to improve the configurational sampling and access long-timescale dynamics, which is critical for protein allostery (Kern and Zuiderweg, Reference Kern and Zuiderweg2003). This enhanced network model was used to evaluate the effect of long-timescale dynamics on the biomolecular network and was compared with the slow dynamical motions measured through solution NMR in the isolated Cas9 domains (East et al., Reference East, Newton and Morzan2020a). The computed pathways consisted of residue-to-residue steps that optimize the overall correlation between amino acids 789/794 and 841/858, which belong to the HNH domain but are adjacent to RuvC and REC2, respectively. This calculation provided an estimation of the principal channels of communication between RuvC and REC2. Notably, the top-ranked shortest pathway that maximizes the dynamic transmission between RuvC and REC2 through HNH shows a ~ 70% overlap with the pathway experimentally identified in an isolated construct of the HNH domain using NMR CPMG relaxation dispersion. We note that, while the experimental approach is limited to the isolated domain, the computation of the optimal pathways considers the full-length complex, offering an interpretation of HNH allosterism within the context of the Cas9 protein bound to RNA and DNA (East et al., Reference East, Skeens and Cui2020b).

Building on the agreement between NMR and the theoretical approach, the pathway connecting REC-HNH-RuvC was used as a reference to measure alterations in the allosteric communication in a Geobacillus stearothermophilus Cas9 species that is functional in human plasma and opens new avenues for applications in the genome editing field (Belato et al., Reference Belato, D’Ordine and Nierzwicki2022a; Belato et al., Reference Belato, Norbrun and Luo2022b). Alterations in the allosteric pathway connecting REC and HNH were also observed in the presence of mutations in the REC3 domain that increase the specificity of Cas9 against off-target effects (Ricci et al., Reference Ricci, Chen and Miao2019; Mitchell et al., Reference Mitchell, Hsu and Medrano2020; Skeens et al., Reference Skeens, Sinha and Mohd2024).

These findings indicated that CRISPR-Cas9 achieves altered selectivity by modulating its allosteric communication, a concept that paved the way for successful engineering toward improved gene editing (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Dagdas and Kleinstiver2017; Schmid-Burgk et al., Reference Schmid-Burgk, Gao and Li2020). Furthermore, the agreement between shortest-path calculations and CPMG relaxation dispersion underscores the effectiveness of using shortest-path calculations to analyse allosteric pathways (East et al., Reference East, Skeens and Cui2020b).

Networks of communication gain and loss

As mentioned earlier, edge betweenness (EB) is a crucial metric for assessing the ‘traffic’ through network edges. It has been further employed to create circular networks depicting mutation-induced allosteric gain or loss. In a detailed study investigating the improved specificity in CRISPR-Cas9 obtained through three lysine-to-alanine mutations (K810A, K855A, K848A, Figure 5a) (Slaymaker et al., Reference Slaymaker, Gao and Zetsche2016), the mutation-induced change in EB (ΔEB) was calculated as the difference between the EB of the mutant and wild-type (WT) systems (Nierzwicki et al., Reference Nierzwicki, Arantes, Saha and Palermo2021). The normalized ΔEB values were visualized using circular networks, where the HNH communities computed through Community Network Analysis (vide supra) are arranged in a circle and connected by links with thickness proportional to the ΔEB (Figure 5b).

Figure 5.

Circular Networks. a. Allosteric pathway of information transfer (pink) spanning HNH (green) from the DNA recognition lobe (REC) to the RuvC core. The K810A, K855a, and K848A enhancing specificity mutations are indicted. b. Circular networks of mutation-induced edge betweenness change (ΔEB) noting gain (blue) or loss (red) in allosteric crosstalk between MD-derived communities (shown for the K855A and K810A mutants). HNH communities are plotted on a circle, connected through links the thickness of which is proportional to ΔEB. c. Networks integrating the MD-derived communities (circles), with the experimental dynamic exchange among them (bonds with thickness proportional to CPMG relaxation dispersion NMR upon normalizing the number of flexible residues in each community). Adapted with permission from Nierzwicki et al. (Nierzwicki et al., Reference Nierzwicki, Arantes, Saha and Palermo2021) Reference Nierzwicki, East and Morzan2021 eLIFE.

Communities hosting the residues that form the allosteric pathways, i.e., the ‘allosteric communities’ (A), were defined based on the agreement between CPMG relaxation dispersion and shortest path analysis (Figure 4) and distinguished from non-allosteric communities (NA). Negative ΔEB values (ΔEB < 0, blue) indicate a loss of communication, while positive values (ΔEB > 0, red) signify a communication gain due to the mutation. The study revealed a significant loss of communication between the allosteric routes that connect the functional sites (i.e., the A1–A3 communities Figure 5b). Conversely, non-allosteric sites (NA1–NA4) showed increased communication, suggesting that mutations enhancing Cas9 specificity also disrupt its allosteric signalling. To experimentally validate this observation, an ‘NMR-derived network analysis’ that fully integrates NMR relaxation dispersion with MD and graph theory was introduced (Figure 5c). Here, the computational communities were used as a reference, while the dynamic exchange among them was based on NMR, confirming a loss in crosstalk between allosteric communities. This approach showed that the K-to-A mutations dramatically reduce the dynamic exchange between allosteric communities in HNH, corroborating the theoretical outcomes. In summary, these networks effectively highlight allosteric communication changes induced by mutations in biomolecular systems.

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of communication efficiency

Traditional shortest-path measurements obtained from the dynamic network serve a valuable purpose in identifying the most probable communication pathways between predefined sites (Sethi et al., Reference Sethi, Eargle, Black and Luthey-Schulten2009). However, they fall short of providing insight into how these pathways compare within the broader communication network, as assessing the favourability is crucial for identifying dominant allosteric communication pathways. To address this gap, we recently introduced a Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) metric (Sinha et al., Reference Sinha, Molina Vargas and Arantes2024), which quantifies the preference for communication between pathways of similar length in the network (the “noise”) connecting distant sites (the “signal”) (Figure 6). In this approach, the ‘noise’ is computed as the distribution of the sum of edge betweennesses, EB, $ g(v) $ , (i.e., the cumulative betweennesses, measuring the total traffic passing through the edges) among all residues and nucleobases. The ‘signal’ is derived from the distribution of cumulative edge betweennesses of pathways connecting the regions of interest. In detail, the cumulative betweennesses of each pathway ( $ {S}_k $ ) is calculated as the sum of the betweennesses of all the constituent edges in that specific pathway:

(10) $$ {S}_k={\sum}_{i=1}^{n-1}{g}_k(i) $$

where $ {g}_k(i) $ is the edge betweenness of the edge in the k^th between node $ i $ and $ i+1 $ , and $ n $ is the number of edges in the $ {k}^{th} $ pathway. Then, SNR is determined as:

(11) $$ SNR=\frac{\frac{E\left[S\right]}{Var(S)}}{\frac{E\left[N\right]}{Var(N)}} $$

Figure 6.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio of communication efficiency. a. Schematic of the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) of communication efficiency on the 3D structure of Cas13a. Two black arrows indicate the signal standing up over the noise, shown using grey arrows. High SNR indicates that the signal stands out over the noise. b. Distribution of the signals from the crRNA “seed” (green) and “switch” (blue) regions to the catalytic core residues, plotted on the background of noise (grey) in the crRNA- (top) and target RNA-bound (bottom) Cas13a. c Sites of increased specificity in Cas13a identified through computational analysis and tested through mutagenesis and DNA cleavage experiments. Adapted with permission from Sinha et al.(Sinha et al., Reference Sinha, Molina Vargas and Arantes2024) Copyright 2023, Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Nucleic Acids Research.

where $ E\left[\frac{S}{N}\right] $ and $ Var\left(\frac{S}{N}\right) $ are the expectation and variance of the signal/noise distribution, respectively. High SNR values indicate the preference of the network to communicate through the signal over other noisy routes. We recently introduced the SNR to identify the allosteric signalling responsible for the activation of Cas13a (Figure 6a), an RNA-targeting protein that shows promise for RNA detection and imaging (O’Connell, Reference O’Connell2019). Cas13a uses a CRISPR RNA (crRNA) to target RNA sequences and trigger the catalytic action of a composite active site, which is distally located with respect to the sites of RNA binding and is formed by two ‘Higher Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes Nucleotide’ (HEPN) domains, cleaving any solvent-exposed RNA.

To establish how the allosteric communication controls the RNA cleavage activity in Cas13a, multi-microsecond MD simulations, reaching almost ~170 μs of sampling, were performed. SNR analysis was performed over the obtained trajectories to elucidate the signalling efficiency between the guide RNA and catalytic sites. This analysis showed that, in the inactive protein (i.e., the binary complex formed by the protein bound to the crRNA), the signal overlaps with the noise (Figure 6b) resulting in lower SNR values. Upon target RNA binding, the signal stands out over the noise, indicating remarkable communication efficiency, and identifies the region of the guide RNA sourcing most allosteric communications (i.e., the switch region, displaying high SNR values).

This explains previous experimental observations reporting that the binding of the target RNA to the switch region of the guide RNA results in the activation of the protein toward RNA cleavage. This approach also pinpointed the critical activation hotspots in the protein (R377, N378, and R973, Figure 6c). We have also shown that alanine mutation of these residues increases sensitivities to single-nucleotide mismatches. These variants have also been tested for detecting singlenucleotide polymorphisms in SARS-CoV-2 variants, demonstrating their potential for disease diagnostics. This has paved new avenues for the development of highly selective RNA-based cleavage and detection tools. Building on these findings, the SNR emerges as a useful tool to distinguish allosteric signals from non-allosteric inter-residue communications in biomolecular complexes and identify critical hotspots for mutational analysis aimed at improving biomolecular function and specificity.

Centrality analysis

Centrality is a fundamental concept in network theory, illustrating the relative influence of a node or cluster of nodes within a network (Barabási and Pósfai, Reference Barabási and Pósfai2016). Its application in graph theory, particularly in social media networks, underscores its importance in information flow. In social networks, nodes with numerous connections act as hubs where information centralizes and transfers efficiently. Similarly, in biomolecular systems, residues that serve as hubs govern the system’s behaviour. Three primary measures define centrality in a network. Degree Centrality (DC) is computed as the number of edges connected to a node, serving as a local centrality measure. Betweenness Centrality (BC) quantifies the number of shortest paths passing through a node, indicating how often a node acts as a bridge between others. Eigenvector Centrality (EC) measures a node’s influence based on its connections and the influence of those connections. The EC is derived from the first eigenvector of the adjacency matrix $ \mathrm{A} $ , which is a square matrix used to describe connections between vertices in a graph. The EC of a node, $ {\mathrm{c}}_{\mathrm{I}} $ , is the sum of the centralities of all nodes that are connected to it by an edge:

(12) $$ {\mathrm{c}}_{\mathrm{i}}=\frac{1}{\unicode{x03BB}}\sum \limits_{\mathrm{j}=1}^{\mathrm{n}}{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{j}}{\mathrm{c}}_{\mathrm{j}} $$

where the edges $ {\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{ij}} $ are elements of the adjacency matrix $ \mathrm{A} $ and $ \unicode{x03BB} $ is the eigenvalue associated with the eigenvector composed by $ {\mathrm{c}}_{\mathrm{I}} $ elements. EC quantifies the connectivity of each amino acid or nucleobase within the system, identifying elements that significantly influence the network. It provides a normalized measure of connectivity, facilitating comparisons across different conditions such as mutations or effector binding (CFA et al., Reference CFA, Morzan and Hendrickson2018).

The EC was used to provide a comparable measure of the allosteric signalling among the three variants of the Cas9 nuclease. These variants, namely VQR, VRER, and EQR, have introduced the ability to recognize alternative PAM sequences (Figure 7a) (Kleinstiver et al., Reference Kleinstiver, Prew and Tsai2015) as opposed to wild-type Cas9 (WT Cas9) that recognizes only the canonical 5’-NGG-3’ PAM sequence (where N can be any base) significantly constraining its application towards recognizing a wide-array of genome sequences. These variants recognize 5’-NGA-3′, 5’-NGAG-3′, and 5’-NGCG-3’ PAM sequences through mutations of the PAM-interacting (PI) domain, remarkably expanding the DNA targeting capability of Cas9. The EC distribution analysis plotted on the 3D structure of the Cas9 variants (Figure 7b) shows that the most relevant domains in terms of correlation with the overall motion of the system are REC1 – 3 HNH, and RuvC. Higher EC values are associated with HNH and REC2. This is consistent with Community Network Analysis (Figure 7c), showing that the interconnection between REC2 and HNH is the strongest in all variants (i.e., thicker bonds connect communities #8 and #4). This evidence also agrees well with the EC distribution for the WT Cas9 (Figure 7d) and with single-molecule FRET experiments, indicating that in the WT Cas9 the motions of REC2 regulate HNH (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Dagdas and Kleinstiver2017; Dagdas et al., Reference Dagdas, Chen, Sternberg and Doudna2017; Sung et al., Reference Sung, Park and Kim2018). Noteworthy, the eigenvalues associated with the EC distribution (Figure 7e) follow the same activity trend experimentally measured for these mutants. Indeed, Kleinstiver et al. have shown that the activity of these variants in human cells for the 5’-NGG-3’ PAM seems to be WT > EQR > VQR ~ VRER (Kleinstiver et al., Reference Kleinstiver, Prew and Tsai2015), as also confirmed by independent studies (Hirano et al., Reference Hirano, Nishimasu, Ishitani and Nureki2016). The eigenvalues associated with the EC distribution are a quantitative measure of the overall correlation of the system, indicating the efficiency of the communication.

Figure 7.

Eigenvector centrality analysis of Cas9 variants. a. Close-up view of the PAM binding domain in three variants of Cas9 (viz., VQR, VRER and EQR) with mutations in the PAM binding region(Kleinstiver et al., Reference Kleinstiver, Prew and Tsai2015). The DNA target is shown as ribbons, highlighting the PAM sequence in magenta. The Cas9 residues mutated to alter the protein’s selectivity (green) and the residues preserved (pink) are shown as sticks. b. Eigenvector centrality distribution plotted on the 3D structure of the Cas9 variants, color-coded from red (lowest EC) to blue (highest EC). c. Community structures for the EQR, VQR and VRER Cas9 variants. d. EC distribution shown for the WT Cas9, coloured according to the colour scale on the right. e. Highest eigenvalues of the generalized correlation matrix for the WT Cas9 and its variants.

In the Cas9 variants, a decreased EC distribution strongly indicates a lower degree of communication, reflecting the decreased experimental activity of these systems. Hence, single point mutations in the PI domain affect the system’s communication, strengthening the notion that PAM acts as an allosteric effector of the Cas9 dynamics. Overall, these findings show that the EC analysis allows reliable comparisons of the system connectivity in comparison with mutated systems. Moreover, EC helps identify the main mode of collective correlations in the network, making it a valuable tool for understanding the connectivity in biomolecular systems.

Perspective applications

Here, we propose a series of potential applications aimed at advancing the use of graph theory to elucidate biophysical mechanisms and inform drug design.

Graph theory helps pinpoint critical residues or domains that serve as hubs for functional interactions. This can be applied to map interaction pathways between key players in respiratory chains, predicting how perturbations or mutations might disrupt these processes. Complex I of the mitochondrial respiratory chain is essential for electron transport and proton pumping. Notably, the ubiquinone reduction site – crucial for Complex I function – extends nearly 200 Å from the proton channels, raising questions about the molecular origin of this long-range coupling (Sharma et al., Reference Sharma, Belevich and Gamiz-Hernandez2015). Graph representations can be employed to identify structural motifs or key residues that mediate this coupling. By analysing the connectivity within the complex, critical pathways for energy transfer and signal propagation during the coupling event can be elucidated.

Applying graph theory could also be instrumental in identifying efficient pathways for electron transfer in biomolecules (Gray and Winkler, Reference Gray and Winkler1996). For instance, it could provide insights into the plastocyanin-cytochrome f interaction, where subtle conformational changes in one protein facilitate efficient electron transfer within the photosynthetic electron transport chain (Cruz-Gallardo et al. Reference Cruz-Gallardo, Díaz-Moreno, Díaz-Quintana and De la Rosa2012). Additionally, graph theory can be used to model and compare the effects of mutations or environmental changes (such as pH or ionic strength) on the interaction network, offering a deeper understanding of how these factors impact electron transfer efficiency. Theoretical studies of electron transfer necessitate a quantum mechanical description, and the integration of this framework with graph theory offers promising insights (Arantes et al., Reference Arantes, Patel and Palermo2022) to elucidate, for instance, how long-range effects influence the evolution of chemical reactions (Brunk et al., Reference Brunk, Ashari and Athri2011). By merging graph theory with quantum mechanical descriptions, we can gain valuable insights into the mechanisms of electron transfer and their broader implications for cellular processes.

Allosteric regulation in large RNAs, such as group II introns and the spliceosome, involves long-range interactions where changes in one region of the RNA can influence distant sites (Casalino et al. Reference Casalino, Palermo, Rothlisberger and Magistrato2016, Casalino et al., Reference Casalino, Palermo and Spinello2018; Saltalamacchia et al., Reference Saltalamacchia, Casalino and Borišek2020). In these systems, RNA splicing entails several conformational changes, driven by both RNA – RNA and RNA-protein interactions. Graph-based analyses can aid in deciphering RNA folding pathways and elucidating how communication between distinct regions affects catalysis, intron cleavage, and exon ligation. This approach could enhance our comprehensive understanding of the structure – function relationships within these complex RNA systems.

Combining graph-theoretical approaches with MD simulations enables the identification of critical nodes (key amino acids or domains) that may regulate function or serve as allosteric drug targets (Bernetti et al., Reference Bernetti, Bosio and Bresciani2024). This approach is particularly valuable for discovering new drug targets, especially in complex systems characterized by allosteric responses and feedback mechanisms. Notable examples include imidazole glycerol phosphate synthase (Rivalta et al., Reference Rivalta, Sultan and Lee2012; Calvó-Tusell et al., Reference Calvó-Tusell, Maria-Solano, Osuna and Feixas2022), which is a target for the development of antifungal, antibacterial, and herbicidal agents, and the signal-transducing GTPase K-Ras, a quintessential example of a small yet allosterically complex protein that is highly relevant in oncology (Castelli et al., Reference Castelli, Marchetti and Osuna2024).

In summary, graph theory provides an in-depth analysis of connectivity and interaction networks, helping to unravel the mechanistic details of various biological functions. These include electron transfer in respiratory and photosynthetic chains, the conformational dynamics of complex RNA – RNA and RNA-protein interactions, and the allosteric mechanisms of drug targets. These insights have practical applications in fields like bioenergetics, drug discovery, and the design of biomolecular machines.

Outlook and challenges

Graph theory has significantly deepened our understanding of complex molecular systems, providing valuable insights into information transfer and the structure of biomolecular interaction networks. Challenges in graph theory are particularly pronounced when modeling the intricate relationships between cause and effect, especially in systems where multiple variables interact. While graph theory is invaluable for representing these relationships, inferring causation demands careful consideration of underlying assumptions, such as the presence or absence of key effectors. One approach to constructing causal graphs involves using causal inference methods, such as Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) (Barabási and Pósfai, Reference Barabási and Pósfai2016). In a DAG, edges have a specified direction, and the graph is acyclic, meaning it is impossible to start at one node and follow a sequence of directed edges that leads back to the same node. In causal models, DAGs effectively represent causal relationships between variables, with each directed edge indicating a causal influence. In probabilistic models, DAGs can be employed to represent dependencies between random variables, where nodes signify variables and edges denote conditional dependencies.

Applying DAGs to decipher causation in biomolecular dynamics is both highly challenging and innovative, as it has yet to be fully realized in complex biomolecular systems. Key challenges include the ability to manage large datasets with numerous variables and the complexity of high-dimensional data, typical in MD simulations. This complexity can obscure causal discovery due to the vast number of potential relationships. Moreover, creating clear, interpretable visualizations and explanations of causal relationships that accurately reflect the underlying mechanisms adds another layer of difficulty. These challenges underscore the need for interdisciplinary approaches that bridge graph theory, statistics, and causal inference to develop effective solutions.