Poetry Is Jewelry: A Conceptual Metaphor

The association between poetry and jewelry exemplifies a conceptual metaphor, as posited in cognitive linguistics. According to cognitive linguistics, our thinking, understanding, and use of language are fundamentally shaped by our physical experiences in the world. The argument is that abstract concepts like life, death, time, love, justice, and poetry are often grounded in bodily, sensory, and motor experiences. Our minds do not process meaning in a purely abstract or symbolic way; instead, we understand even complex ideas through metaphorical links to things we have felt, seen, or done with our bodies. In the case of the present study, Niẓāmī’s use of the poetry is jewelry metaphor ties the physical act of crafting a precious object—with its tactile precision, visual beauty, and skilled labor—to the mental and creative process of composing poetry.Footnote ¹² Through this mapping of experimental domains, the cognitive processing of the abstract notion of poetry is enhanced, enabling a more profound and nuanced understanding of its beauty and value.

The article’s core contribution lies in shifting the discussion from traditional, ornamental interpretations of metaphor toward a conceptual metaphor framework that uncovers its cognitive, cultural, and physical dimensions. Rather than treating poetry is jewelry as an isolated poetic flourish, this study reveals it as a systematic mapping—rooted in old Persian and its adjacent cultural traditions—that structures how Niẓāmī conceptualizes and communicates the act of poetic creation. This approach highlights the metaphor’s role in making abstract poetic processes tangible, foregrounding its links to labor, precision, courtly exchange, and the sociocultural values of the medieval period. Utilizing the cognitive theory of metaphor, the study demonstrates how the metaphor’s sensorial grounding and physical analogies explain both its prevalence in court literature and its adaptability in Niẓāmī’s hands. This emphasis on conceptual metaphor clarifies the internal logic of Niẓāmī’s imagery and shows how his creative elaborations engage, subvert, and enrich shared cultural models—insights that remain largely inaccessible under traditional metaphor analysis.

Niẓāmī employs the conceptual metaphor of poetry is jewelry in various capacities to elucidate multiple dimensions of poetic art. For instance, within a segment of Sharaf-nāma (the Book of Honor), during a self-praising discourse on his poetic craftsmanship, he metaphorically envisions himself as an individual blessed with extraordinary fortune, skillfully assembling precious gems in a cohesive and harmonious manner. As typical in metaphors, elements of the source domain, the domain of jewelry, are expressed in the text, but the target domain, the domain of poetry, remains unmentioned:

Niẓāmī did not invent this metaphor. The conceptual nature of this metaphor arises from the fact that it is extracted from nonpoetic language and the cultural milieu of the poet; he merely elevates it to a higher level of aesthetic expression. This comparison of poetry to precious materials has roots in a longstanding Persian tradition, influenced by Arabic, in which such metaphors appear even in quotidian, nonliterary language.Footnote ¹⁴ A hadith attributed to Muḥammad and frequently referred to by medieval Persian litterateurs states that God has treasures beneath the heavens, the keys to which are the tongues of poets.Footnote ¹⁵ In addition, one of the terms used to refer to poetry in Persian is naẓm; deriving from Arabic, as an infinitive, this word also connotes stringing gems to create a necklace.Footnote ¹⁶ This linguistic parallel demonstrates the conceptual link between poetry and jewelry in this cultural context. This connection allows the jewelry, as a concrete entity, to operate as a means for comprehending the abstract aspects of the composition of poetry and its evaluation.Footnote ¹⁷

In substantiating the conceptuality of this imagery, Lakoff and Johnson’s model, specifically their explanation of the “time is money” metaphor, can prove to be a valuable analytical tool.Footnote ¹⁸ Drawing on this framework, it becomes apparent that the metaphor poetry is jewelry finds resonance in the Persian cultural context, in which poetry is perceived as a precious and coveted phenomenon. The act of poetic composition is limited to a select few possessing the requisite knowledge, skill, and discernment to navigate its intricate stylistic nuances through persistent practice. The accomplished output evokes the splendor and allure of fine jewelry. Like the time is money metaphor, the conception of poetry is jewelry is not a necessary way for human beings to conceptualize poetic art; it is tied to the cultural milieu of medieval Persia.Footnote ¹⁹

Conceptual metaphors, typically, transcend mere linguistic expression, giving rise to a profound cognitive framework.Footnote ²⁰ Consequently, a multitude of linguistic manifestations can evoke or invoke the same metaphor. The conceptual metaphor of poetry is jewelry facilitates the establishment of systematic correspondences, or mappings, between the domains of jewelry and poetry. This cognitive framework encompasses the gem as a metaphorical representation of words, crafting a piece of jewelry as analogous to the act of versification, and the jeweler as an equivalent for the poet. Within this conceptual framework, when Niẓāmī, prompted by pride, seeks to proclaim his poetic supremacy, he designates himself as the sovereign of the jewelers:

Moreover, the metaphorical connection extends to the aesthetic allure of the jewel, mirroring the semantic beauty of the poem; the material value of the gem aligns with the intellectual worth attributed to the poem, and a book of poetry with a treasure of precious stones. Within this context, aligning the worth of his poetry with the tangible value of jewelry, Niẓāmī draws parallels between receiving redemption from a patron and dedicating his poems to him, likening it to the exchange of pearls for gems:

Upon scrutiny of these examples, it is evident that this conceptual metaphor points primarily to two aspects of poetic expression: the aesthetic beauty of speech and the perceived value of literary production. The use of gems in this analogy suggests that the words in a poem are painstakingly chosen and strung together to create a masterpiece that is both beautiful and valuable. The poets use words as if they were precious gems, skillfully crafting them into lines and stanzas to create a work of art that is worthy of admiration and appreciation:

This metaphor indicates that poetry is not just a form of communication but, like lapidary, it is a difficult art that requires skill, creativity, and patience to master. It also reflects the cultural significance placed on literature in intellectual circles, in which poetry has long been revered and celebrated as a high art form. In this framework, Niẓāmī asserts that those who possess wisdom and erudition regard poets like himself—whom he metaphorically describes as jewelers—as among the most fortunate:

The systematic set of correspondences, or mappings, that characterize the poetry is jewelry conceptual metaphor is presented here:

As this conceptual metaphor transcends this basic mapping and expands through imaginative expressions and conceptualizes additional aspects of the art of poetry, it surpasses its initial mapping. As a result, it triggers the metaphorical entailments that involve a more complex process, drawing on that rich knowledge of the source domain.Footnote ²⁵ This rich knowledge of the source domain in metaphorical entailments is not necessarily based on formal education or scientific training, but rather on common sense observations and beliefs that are shared within a particular community, known as “folk understanding.” Folk understanding encompasses cultural and social influences, shaping diverse interpretations of metaphorical entailments within distinct communities based on practical experiences and observations.Footnote ²⁶ The folk knowledge about the source domain of gems, lapidary, and precious stones leads to the strategic use of metaphorical entailments that facilitate the formation of novel figurative utterances, amplifying the understanding of the target domain and forging more comprehensive connections across these entities.

The folk understanding of the source domain of gemstones and gemology, although naive and not necessarily scientific, is nevertheless rich and varied. It encompasses the knowledge that precious stones are mined from mountains and that pearls are harvested from the depths of the ocean. To reveal their inherent brilliance, skilled artisans must cut, drill, polish, and craft these gems into various forms of adornments. However, the value of these stones varies, with some emitting more radiance than others, and only specialized knowledge and expertise can identify their true worth. The distinction between genuine and counterfeit jewels also requires the discernment of an expert. Given their significant value, precious stones are typically safeguarded in secure boxes and can accumulate to become a treasure. It is not uncommon for tales to emerge of snakes coiled around the buried treasure in ruins. However, these jewels are also vulnerable to theft by robbers, who may make false claims of ownership.

The folk understanding of gemstones and lapidary within the cultural milieu may encompass a broader spectrum, yet the specific elements highlighted above represent those adeptly employed by Niẓāmī to metaphorically elucidate the art of poetry. In the following sections of this article I will undertake a comprehensive examination of the nuanced approaches by which Niẓāmī utilizes this metaphor and its entailment potentials to shed light on diverse aspects of poetry and its composition. The article will furnish a detailed analysis of select excerpts from his literary oeuvres that pertain to the art of poetry, unraveling the multifaceted and intricate association between poetry and jewelry that undergirds them.

Niẓāmī’s Craft of Poetry: Weaving Jewels and Metaphors

In previous discussions, the metaphorical association between poetry and jewelry was highlighted as being widespread within the Persian language. Scrutinizing conceptual metaphors in literature, scholars posit that poets seldom invent new metaphors; instead, they employ their creative disposition to generate innovative effects on preexisting metaphors in the language.Footnote ²⁷ To accomplish this endeavor, poets draw on their knowledge of stylistics and utilize metaphors in ways that enhance their intended meanings and purposes. Furthermore, poets often utilize metaphors as the foundation of their literary work, and by exploiting various manifestations of the entailment potentials of the metaphors within the poem’s context, they convey various dimensions of complex intellectual phenomena.Footnote ²⁸ Similar to other poets, Niẓāmī, through the conventional and conceptual metaphor “poetry is jewelry,” conceptualizes poetry and its related issues.

It is worth noting that the deployment of this conceptual metaphor, initially associating poetry to the art of jewelry (as driven by the lexical definitions of the word naẓm), has experienced a metonymic expansion process. Consequently, its semantic ambit has expanded to encompass, in addition to poetry, various other genres of literary discourse, such as prose and oratory.Footnote ²⁹ However, according to Niẓāmī, poetry holds the most elevated status among different types of literary expressions.Footnote ³⁰ In this respect, he employs the metaphor under discussion specifically (but not exclusively) to describe poems.Footnote ³¹ The present article places a particular emphasis on poetry, aligning with Niẓāmī’s perspective.

Upon examining the passages in which Niẓāmī utilizes this conceptual metaphor, it becomes evident that he displays a high level of creativity in constructing a coherent discussion on the art of poetry, surpassing the banal and overused image of poetry as jewelry. As will be discussed, Niẓāmī explores the entailment potentials of this metaphor, emphasizing the significance of mastering the intricacies of poetry, being discerning and innovative, and avoiding negligent composition or trite emulation. Furthermore, he strategically employs this metaphor to underscore the value of poetry in the social and financial sphere, distinguishing it from other human productions. In the subsequent sections of this analysis I will provide a detailed examination of selected excerpts from Niẓāmī’s oeuvre to demonstrate the efficiency of this conceptual metaphor in achieving these objectives.

As was customary among medieval poets, Niẓāmī adheres to the established practice of dedicating his literary works to the ruler of his land, who provides him with patronage. In several passages of his works, Niẓāmī harnesses the metaphorical potential of poetry as jewelry to expound the rationales underlying the dedication of literary works, the reception of redemption, and other related issues. Utilizing the framework of an exchange of two valuable commodities, Niẓāmī conceptualizes this issue in his creative style. In this context, Niẓāmī directs a portion of his focus at offering a rebuttal to the disapproval prevalent in his era toward the pursuit of poetry as a vocation. The societal status of the poet and the significance of poetic art were contested topics in medieval intellectual circles, as evidenced by the extant poems of that epoch. Some court poets, not proud of their profession, even likened themselves to beggars, as they perceived their poetic output as an insignificant or negligible product in the context of financial exchange. Consequently, they regarded obtaining monetary support from patrons and earning a livelihood through their poetic art as a cause for ignominy.Footnote ³² However, Niẓāmī rejects this perspective and places immense value on his literary creations, vehemently opposing the disparagement of poetry as a futile entity.

Literary Speech More Revered than Jewels

The elevated veneration accorded to poetry by Niẓāmī is derived from his comprehensive appreciation of the infinite potential encompassed within the realm of spoken and written words. In his perspective, speech possesses an immeasurable worth and occupies a critical position in defining human identity vis-à-vis other beings. This thematic preoccupation is a recurring motif throughout his oeuvre and establishes the basis of his poetic philosophy, illuminating his unwavering belief in the power of language and the enduring impact of poetic discourse on human existence.Footnote ³³

Niẓāmī expounds on the fundamental significance of language in one of the opening chapters of Makhzan al-Asrār, titled “On the Virtue of Speech.”Footnote ³⁴Footnote ³⁴ For Neẓāmī the word (sukhan) is not a mere human tool but a primordial, divine force. It is the origin of creation, linked to the Logos, the breath of life, and the soul itself.Footnote ³⁵ Speech is both a metaphysical principle and the medium through which humans understand and transmit truth. In his view speech assumes the role of the primordial genesis, positioned as the inaugural act within nature. It emerges as the sublime intermediary bridging the boundless source of existence and the manifested world, imbuing vitality and animate essence throughout the entire universe.Footnote ³⁶ Speech is not only a human faculty but a sacred, transcendent force that shapes reality and conveys truth. For Neẓāmī, it surpasses mere thought, for thought without expression remains incomplete.Footnote ³⁷ Humans, he contends, are nothing but speech, and the power of speech is the faculty that sets them apart from all other creatures.Footnote ³⁸

Therefore speech, deemed inherently priceless, surpasses even gold, the traditional yardstick for determining financial value in the marketplace. Within the fabric of following interrelated verses, to underscore the intrinsic worth and profound import of language and literary discourse, through an allegorical proclamation he asserts that in the comparison of speech and gold nature’s discerning judgment unequivocally leans toward the supremacy of speech. Further, he elucidates the perspective that coins ought to be minted in tribute to speech, intimating that it represents the ultimate authority as the sovereign of all other forms of wealth and potency. Such an assertion is further reinforced by the reference to speech as a kingly hunter, a personification that accentuates its commanding presence and dominion over the natural world. This excerpt, as a cohesive unit, serves as a potent declaration of the unrivaled influence and ascendancy wielded by the artistry of words, eclipsing all other forms of prestige and authority:

A noteworthy segment of Niẓāmī’s literary corpus delves into the nuances of poetic art and the methods of composing poetry, exhibiting his acute awareness of the significance of his craft and his profound conviction of its utility and worth.Footnote ⁴² According to Niẓāmī, poetry represents the most elevated form of speech, and emerges as an exceptionally precious and superior product, surpassing all other objects in value and importance. In the subsequent chapter of Makhzan al-Asrār, Niẓāmī shifts his focus to the superiority of poetry over prose. In his view, prose, which he characterizes as unstructured and boundless, is also valuable to scholars of literature, whom he refers to as gauharī (lapidary or master jewelers); notably, the conceptual metaphor of poetry as jewelry is underpinning this statement. Through logical reasoning, he concludes that the type of speech that adheres to the rules of poetry, follows the prosodic principles, and maintains a measured structure, is superior to prose.Footnote ⁴³ However, beyond the knowledge of literature and the aptitude to assess adequate and inappropriate expressions and stylistic techniques, the primary quality establishing poetry’s intrinsic value and superiority is inspiration. Niẓāmī contends that when poets receive inspiration in their minds, they become intimate with the angels, akin to the prophets who receive divine revelations.Footnote ⁴⁴ Consequently, although poets may rank lower than prophets, they still occupy a more elevated position than all other people.Footnote ⁴⁵

The preeminence of poetic inspiration is a central theme of Niẓāmī’s literary theory and, on a larger scale, of his Weltanschauung.Footnote ⁴⁶ He posits that the poet’s quest for the essence of poetic inspiration demands resolute dedication. His view is that the privilege and exalted position accorded to poets are a direct result of the effort that goes into their creative process. Niẓāmī employs the metaphor of jewelry to elucidate this point, likening the source of poetic expression to a mine from which a precious stone must be obtained with persistent exertion. For only by breaking through the barriers of the material world and ascending to the spiritual realm can he uncover the source of enchanting artistic revelation that lies within the mine’s depths. He underscores the laborious nature of this task by postulating that a poet must first penetrate the seven skies, as delineated in traditional cosmology, to extract a gleaming red spinel:

Composing Exquisite Poetry As Piercing Valuable Gems

Another facet of Niẓāmī’s theory of poetry, also rooted in his profound appreciation for the intrinsic value of poetic art, revolves around the imperative to abstain from squandering words and avoid superfluous verbosity in favor of measured expression. For him, poetry is based on the language and words, and these entities are the most valuable assets of humans; therefore, they ought not to be squandered. His literary corpus reflects this belief, and he employs a range of descriptive imageries to espouse the virtues of brevity, precision, and strictness in selecting poetic words and expressions, and denouncing unwarranted protraction of words and carelessness in composition.Footnote ⁴⁸ One effective tool he employs to convey this theme in a comprehensible and tangible manner is the conceptual metaphor of poetry as jewelry.

In the opening chapters of Khusrau u Shīrīn, Niẓāmī devotes a prefatory section to the craft of creating this romantic narrative, in which he counsels poets to be mindful of excessive verbosity and prolixity. In an excerpt from this prologue, drawing upon this conceptual metaphor and its entailment potentials, he likens poetry to making jewelry in its meticulousness, delicacy, and aesthetic value:

Through the adept utilization of figurative language and subtle allusions, in this excerpt Niẓāmī encapsulates intricate concepts in concise expressions, evoking the need for further explanations to grasp his intended meaning. Indeed, a pivotal aspect highlighted in this excerpt resides in the utilization of the notion of “piercing a gem” as a representation of the complex process of crafting a poem. However, the ultimate objective is the creation of a complete piece of jewelry (typically, a necklace, signifying its thoughtful arrangement, or an earring, evoking its melodic charm) rather than solely penetrating gemstones.Footnote ⁵⁰ In this mode of expression, this conceptual metaphor underpins a metonymy.Footnote ⁵¹ Conceptual metonymy is a figure of speech that arises from the contiguity of two conceptual entities and plays a significant role in cognitive activities.Footnote ⁵²

This metonymy utilizes the entity of piercing gems to indicate or provide mental access to the entity of making a necklace. One kind of entity, piercing, serves as a vehicle for the target entity of making jewelry. In this metonymy, the relationship between a whole and a part is applied. More precisely, the idealized cognitive model here is a complex event in which a successive subevent (piercing) stands for a complex event. In successive events, initial, central, and final subevents may be used to stand for entire complex events.Footnote ⁵³ In this case, among all the actions involved in making jewelry, piercing (a central subevent) is selected. Due to the perilous and crucial nature of piercing precious stones, which demands the utmost accuracy, expertise, and finesse, this imagery is accentuated and evoked more frequently than any other phase in the creation of a necklace. This metonymy is utilized in other excerpts analyzed in this article, however, it will not be part of subsequent discussions.

Niẓāmī asserts with conviction that the task of discovering the most fitting words for crafting a poem is a formidable undertaking. Beyond the metaphor of mining previously explored, he draws upon another entailment potential of the metaphor poetry is jewelry and, referring to the act of retrieving certain types of precious stones, particularly pearls, from the depth of the ocean, he designates the poet as a diver. To obtain the most fitting poetic expressions, poets must exert significant effort and delve into the profundity of their poetic intuition, akin to the laborious task of harvesting pearls from the abyss of the seas.Footnote ⁵⁴ Such endeavors, indeed, demand skill, dedication, and a profusion of inspiration. Niẓāmī has employed this imagery in Laylī u Majnūn, indicating his belief in the efficacy of this metaphorical expression to tangibly illustrate the rarity of possessing inspirational capacities and the challenges inherent in attaining the most apposite words:

A jeweler must be cautious when piercing gemstones and crafting adornments to ensure that they do not cause any damage to the stones or diminish their value. Correspondingly, a poet must be attentive when selecting words, figures of speech, and images to avoid damaging the beauty and elegance of their poetry. Excessive verbiage or using words in vain can disrupt the flow and beauty of a verse. Therefore erudite wordsmiths who comprehend the significance of language are apprehensive of squandering words and articulating absurdities.Footnote ⁵⁶ They are fastidious and concise, for they do not espouse superfluous vocabulary and labor to create aesthetically pleasing and intellectually engaging masterpieces.

The careless employment of words and their extravagant use are the perilous pitfalls that unenlightened poets may unwittingly plunge into. To emphasize this meaning, in the last line, Niẓāmī draws another analogy between the composition of poetry and jewelry-making, alluding to a custom in which seasoned craftsmen, cognizant of the preciousness of gemstones, refrain from piercing them. This task is often delegated to inexperienced apprentices who, unaware of the true worth and fragility of the precious stones, work with carefree abandon. Through this framework, Niẓāmī highlights the significance of caution and knowledge in this practice (being concerned about breaking the gem), emphasizing that only the ignorant (incipient jewelers) are prone to loquacity (drilling without agitation, due to ignorance). In both scenarios, it is the absence of cognizance that provides a shield of oblivion against the inherent anxiety and apprehension that accompanies these endeavors. The conceptual metaphor likening poetry to jewelry serves Niẓāmī as a powerful tool, illustrating the perils of imprudent artistic expression and underscoring the importance of expertise and mindfulness in both crafts.

The Patron As the Connoisseur of Gems

Niẓāmī upholds the belief that poetry represents the pinnacle of human creation, and its inherent worth surpasses all material possessions. As a result, he contends that one who proffers a poem in exchange for gold from the mighty relinquishes the luminescent pearl to receive in return fragments of rock.Footnote ⁵⁷ Nevertheless, Niẓāmī authored several encomia in homage to the ruler of his land, and acquired due remunerations. Indeed, in medieval Islamic courts, patrons bestowed upon their panegyrists a dual bounty of material and abstract rewards. Materially, these benefits manifested as monetary endowments, regal attire, opulent offerings, gracious accommodations, and even a share in the prosperous benefits derived from land taxation. Simultaneously, the intangible boon of proximity to formidable patronage facilitated a heightened likelihood of securing esteemed positions. These coveted privileges, irrespective of their material or abstract nature, were fervently valued in the erudite circles of that era, emblematic of prestige.Footnote ⁵⁸ Niẓāmī indulged in the sumptuous rewards of both these categories and garnered support in the replication and dissemination of his literary oeuvre.Footnote ⁵⁹

Although this may be perceived as a manifestation of conformity to the structural constraints and demands of the poet’s profession during the era of classical Persian literature, Niẓāmī nonetheless exhibits his own distinct approach in his dealings with patrons, including his selection of them and the dedication of his works to them. He is able to navigate the structural limitations of his profession while also remaining true to his artistic vision and personal values. Notably, in the aftermath of the demise of his illustrious patrons and lacking a commendable figure to whom he can dedicate his epic poem, Iskandar-nāma, according to his own poems, he maintains his principles. He disapproves of dedicating his poetry to unworthy individuals and favors a patron who possesses literary knowledge, comprehends the value of poetry, and appreciates the nuances of his style.

Niẓāmī, in one of the initial chapters of Sharaf-nāma, the first part of Iskandar-nāma, expounds on various themes regarding the composition process of this book, including his quest for an appreciative patron. Implementing the metaphor poetry is jewelry and its entailment potentials, he laments the loss of the “pearl buyer” (his previous patrons), since whose decease the market for selling pearls (his poems) has become languid and unprofitable.Footnote ⁶⁰ Subsequently, Niẓāmī emphasizes his preference for a jewelry connoisseur: a patron well-versed in the intricacies of the poet’s craft, whose passion for poetry may ignite the poet’s creative fervor. As previously mentioned, in Niẓāmī’s literary philosophy, poets, akin to prophets, communicate with angels who unlock the wellsprings of poetic inspiration. Here, Niẓāmī refers to this angelic muse as āmūzigār (teacher) because it instructs the poet in arcane mysteries of his artistry. Niẓāmī yearns for a listener with whom he can share the guarded mysteries this inspiring angel imparts. In this context, the poet’s concise yet semantically rich words highlight the importance of the patron’s literary knowledge, because without a thorough grasp of poetry’s nuances he cannot fathom these secrets.

To reinforce this message, using other entailment potentials of this metaphor, Niẓāmī draws a correspondence between the patron’s interest in poetry, which kindles the poetic faculty, and the diamond blade used to extract precious substances from mines. Finally, Niẓāmī employs the exchange of two valuable commodities to conceptualize the dedication of his poems to the patron and the consequent reward he may receive.Footnote ⁶¹ These imageries evince that, in utilizing this conceptual metaphor, in addition to recognizing the aesthetic parallels between crafting jewelry and composing poetry, Niẓāmī also takes cognizance of the economic value of these two entities in the financial cycle of society:

Utilizing this conceptual metaphor, Niẓāmī expounds similar themes in the epilogue of Iqbāl-nāma (the Book of Fortune), the second part of Iskandar-nāma.Footnote ⁶³ In this poem, it is perceivable that several patrons, even resorting to threats and coercion, implored Niẓāmī to dedicate this book of poetry to them upon its completion. In the initial verse of this chapter, Niẓāmī depicts his poetry as a precious gem, which as soon as it is extracted from the mines—a metaphor for the sources of his literary ingenuity—has lured a throng of buyers. However, the poet’s discerning nature has led him to withhold his literary creation from those whom he deemed unworthy. Through the entailment potentials of the conceptual metaphor poetry is jewelry, Niẓāmī portrays this situation. He draws a parallel between poetry and precious stones, notably pearls and spinels, and with a reminder of their monetary value within a materialistic society accentuates the inherent beauty, splendor, and elegance of poetry. Furthermore, the vivid portrayal of a bustling crowd of buyers eager to acquire this metaphorical gemstone indicates that the poet’s literary creations garnered significant acclaim in the noble ambiance and intellectual circles of his time.

This excerpt is notable for Niẓāmī’s frequent implementation of the technique of īhām (double meaning), which imbues his language with hidden meanings that require scrutiny to discern.Footnote ⁶⁴ This deliberate approach is in accordance with the poet’s intended theme, a discreet critique of the discourteous patrons who hold significant political positions. Despite their claims of nobility, by leveraging their wealth and influence these prominent dignitaries have ungraciously urged the poet to dedicate his poetry book to them.

Drawing upon the dual meanings of the word gauharī (jeweler and noble), he creates an īhām.Footnote ⁶⁵ Although the primary acceptation of gauharī (jeweler) aligns with the act of gem buying, mentioned in the first hemistich, this lexeme also refers to the nobility, and the poet intends this second sense. Niẓāmī employs a subtle semantic strategy to imply that those of noble lineage possess a refined sensibility and innate appreciation for exquisite intellectual works and not merely materialistic possessions.

Subsequently, Niẓāmī employs an allusion-based īhām, utilizing the word qārūnī to evoke both the concepts of opulence and the state of being Korah. Through this intricate linguistic maneuver, he invokes the story of Korah’s wealth, as narrated in the Qurʾān, and implies that excessive riches do not necessarily ensure absolute triumph.Footnote ⁶⁶ Moreover, he subtly draws a parallel between his poetic creation and the prophetic speech of Moses, who admonished Korah preceding his deplorable downfall.Footnote ⁶⁷ In this way, the poet disparages the conceit of those who vaunted their wealth and political sway to mistreat him. He warns the uncultured patrons that failure to extol the erudite poets will ultimately result in their obliteration and obscurity, as the poets ensure the longevity of the patrons’ reputation through the dedication of their intellectual creations. He elucidates the destiny of Korah as an instructive exemplar whose treasure was swallowed by the earth and lost to history.Footnote ⁶⁸ Although the conceptual metaphor of poetry as jewelry may not explicitly surface in this line, it operates efficiently as an underlying theme. Niẓāmī subtly compares his poems, which he frequently refers to as his treasure, possessing eternal life, and the material riches of the politically powerful, which he likens to Korah’s treasure, destined to perish.

Niẓāmī utilizes the technique of īhām, once again, to accentuate his reluctance to dedicate a magnificent poem to an unmerited sponsor. For this purpose, he thoughtfully juxtaposes the words māh (moon) and mushtarī (buyer/Jupiter) in the second hemistich. The metaphor of the moon represents Niẓāmī’s alluring book of poetry. The term mushtarī, on the other hand, conveys two significations; it simultaneously connotes buyer, which is the intended meaning of the poet, and Jupiter, which is linked to the moon as a celestial body. Niẓāmī evokes the lack of kinship between the moon and Jupiter to illustrate the incongruity between composing a splendid poem and dedicating it to an unworthy patron. In this verse, the poet alludes to his patrons still within the context of a gem market, likening them to customers.

Capitalizing on the entailment potentials of the conceptual metaphor poetry is jewelry, he likens himself to a gem merchant in this scenario who judiciously assesses the proposed rewards on a scale. Accentuating his lack of avarice and his literary rigor, he does not desire the entire national treasury as compensation, rather, he only expects remuneration commensurate with his efforts. He further explains that his reticence to disclose his poems arises from his scrupulousness in seeking a meritorious listener (patron) who will not besmirch the dignity of the gem-trader (the poet):

In the subsequent verses of the same chapter, Niẓāmī amplifies more explicitly his disdain for dealing with unrefined affluent personalities. He expresses his preference to retreat from society and live away from civilization, or to relinquish his treasure to the flood and cast his jewels into the sea rather than imparting his luminous tales to benighted minds. Niẓāmī was never inclined to benefit from the support of uneducated patrons, even if it entailed lavish rewards. In this poetic autobiographical passage, he reiterates his unwavering adherence to this principle at this stage of his life. To reinforce this idea, he employs the conceptual metaphor of poetry as jewelry and draws a parallel between an erudite listener and a highly seasoned jewelry connoisseur who truly appreciates the value of exquisite gemstones, implicitly referring to the patron to whom this book is dedicated. He then describes the patron’s munificent financial contribution to the poet as a barter of two precious entities or, in poetic terms, the dispensation of gems to reward gems:

In the verses above, Niẓāmī, relying on this metaphor and its entailments, recounts the conduct of unrefined patrons toward him after the completion of Iqbāl-nāma. According to the poet, these patrons were more akin to admirers of rocks than connoisseurs of gems, lacking the discernment necessary to distinguish between the two. When he fashioned this magnificent spinel, they pelted him with stones (coarse words) from massive catapults, attempting to acquire the glistening gems (his poems). This statement, although hyperbolic, represents the culmination of the metaphorical expression, in which the words of ignorant and incompetent patrons resemble stones and the bard’s eloquent poems a resplendent spinel capable of illuminating the darkest of nights.

Niẓāmī notes that these patrons even threatened him with expulsion from the country if he failed to dedicate his book to them. The poet’s sensitive and artistic nature is deeply affronted by their coercive and uncivilized tactics, particularly given that they employ such brutish means to secure the dedication of a work of intellectual and cultural significance. The poet frames this issue within the conceptual metaphor of poetry as jewelry, emphasizing that the pearl trade is a delicate affair that cannot be conducted through bullying and intimidation. In further bolstering this stance and also extolling his book of poetry, Niẓāmī proclaims that, in reality, these efforts are not aimed at purchasing a solitary gem but rather an entire sea replete with pearls, a metaphor for his book of poems. Acquiring such a sea, however, requires a capacity commensurate with its vastness.