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Modernists and Muslims: E. J. Pace and His Islam-Inspired Cartoons
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 January 2025
Abstract
The Christian cartoonist E. J. Pace (1880–1946) began his career during the fundamentalist–modernist controversy of the 1920s. Pace often reacted against liberal evangelicalism, or modernism, in his cartoons, and Islam appeared alongside it on several occasions. This article discusses for the first time Pace’s Islam-inspired cartoons. It explores the socioreligious contexts of their creation and the theological reasons why Pace used them as a tool with which to attack modernism and its perceived threat to America’s souls. Pace may have cartooned Islam to bolster fundamentalist evangelicalism, but his cartoons also create moments of unintended unity that remain culturally relevant today.
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- © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press in association with British Association for American Studies
References
1 McLoughlin, William G., Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: An Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607–1977 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 98–140CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fitzgerald, Frances, The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017), 13–48Google Scholar.
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3 Straub, Jeffery Paul, The Making of a Battle Royal: The Rise of Liberalism in Northern Baptist Life, 1870–1920 (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications), 5Google Scholar; Turner, James, Without God, without Creed: The Origins of Unbelief in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 148CrossRefGoogle Scholar; R. A. Torrey, in his forceful defence of Christ’s raising from the dead, explains that it “is the cornerstone of Christian doctrine.” Torrey, R. A., “The Certainty and Importance of the Bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ from the Dead,” in Dixon, A. C. and Torrey, R. A., eds., The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth (Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company, 1910), 81–105Google Scholar, 81.
4 Curtis Lee Laws, “Convention Side Lights,” Watchman Examiner, 8, 27 (1 July 1920), 834. The term has since been expanded to describe an ardent believer of any faith, but its use during this period – and throughout this article – relates to Christianity only.
5 Noll, Mark, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1992), 381Google Scholar; Straub, 3; Fitzgerald, 95.
6 Eugene Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans: The Great War in the Middle East, 1914–1920 (London: Allen Lane, 2015).
7 Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America: From the New World to the New World Order (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 210, 143; Matthew Avery Sutton, American Apocalypse: A History of Modern Evangelicalism (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014), 71, 74.
8 The Christian Workers Magazine ran from 1910 to 1920. It became the Moody Monthly thereafter and ceased publication in 2003. Since the colonial period, the artform of the cartoon has appeared in America’s press as an expression of social and political unease. Donald Dewey, The Art of Ill Will: The Story of American Political Cartoons (New York: New York University Press, 2007), 2.
9 Ernest James Pace, “The Moslem Menace,” Christian Workers Magazine, 19, 4 (Dec. 1918), available at https://archive.org/details/sim_moody_1918-12_19_4. In “Lest Some Get the Notion” Pace creates a bar chart of the religions of Africa. He explains that 2 percent of Africa is Christian, but 33 percent is “Mohammedan.” The cartoon reminds the reader that the spread of Christianity in Africa is far from complete. Ernest James Pace, “Lest Some Get the Notion,” Christian Workers Magazine, 20, 6 (Feb. 1920), 482, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_moody_1920-02_20_6/page/482/mode/2up.
10 Edward B. Davis, “Fundamentalist Cartoons, Modernist Pamphlets, and the Religious Image of Science in the Scopes Era,” in Charles L. Cohen and Paul S. Boyer, eds., Religion and the Culture of Print in Modern America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008), 175–98; Alec Stevens, E. J. Pace: Christian Cartoonist (Dover, NJ: Calvary Comics, 2007).
11 GhaneaBassiri, 7; Michael Lipka, “Muslims and Islam: Key Findings in the U.S. and around the World,” Pew Research Center (9 Aug. 2017), at www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world.
12 Michael Ian Borer and Adam Murphee, “Framing Catholicism: Jack Chick’s Anti-Catholic Cartoons and the Flexible Boundaries of the Culture Wars,” Religion and American Culture, 18, 1 (Winter 2008), 95–112, 112.
13 A detailed, theological study of Islam is not the primary aim of this article because it was not the intention of Pace’s original cartoons.
14 See Maryanne Rhett, who explored the representation of Muslims and Islam in cartoons that appeared in American popular culture between 1880 and 1922, and Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, who have recently discussed contemporary Islamophobia from sources like the New York Times. Maryanne Rhett, Representations of Islam in United States Comics, 1880–1922 (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019); Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Sentiment: Picturing the Enemy (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019).
15 Frank Beard was a pioneer of Christian cartooning. Pace developed a relationship with Beard and would provide cartoons for the elder cartoonist to redraw in the Ram’s Horn. Ernest James Pace, “The Christian Cartoonist,” Sunday School Times, 75, 7 (18 Feb. 1933), 114, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1933-02-18_75_7/page/114/mode/2up.
16 Sutton, 223; Benjamin Lindquist, “Slow Time and Sticky Media: Frank Beard’s Political Cartoons, Chalk Talks, and Hieroglyphic Bibles, 1860–1905,” Winterthur Portfolio, 53, 1 (Spring 2019), 41–84, 82.
17 “E. J. Pace: Christian Cartoonist,” Sunday School Times, 88, 27 (6 July 1946), 610, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1946-07-06_88_27/page/6/mode/2up. Beard claimed that “pictures can often tell stories quicker and better and words” for “the service of religion”. Frank G. Carpenter, “Chalk Talk,” Deseret Weekly, 51, 14 (21 Sept. 1895), 417–19, 417 available at https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_mbUAAAAMAAJ&lpg=PA417&ots=66D4UpT7hS&dq=Frank+Beard+was+near+deaf+from+birth&pg=PA417&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=beard&f=false.
18 Chick is commenting on the publication of Stevens’s E. J. Pace: Christian Cartoonist. Calvary Comics, “E. J. Pace: Christian Cartoonist,” Calvary Comics, 2006, at https://calvarycomics.com/reader_comments.html.
19 The Christian Workers Magazine became the Moody Monthly in 1920. Republications of Pace’s work did appear in the Moody Monthly after 1921.
20 Unless otherwise stated, the cartoons that appear in this article all stem from the Sunday School Times. Most of Pace’s Islam-inspired cartoons appear during the fundamentalist–modernist controversy, but he did later return to and develop the same themes after a 1934 trip to Morocco.
21 Davis, “Fundamentalist Cartoons,” 178.
22 Ibid.
23 Ernest James Pace, “Watch Your Step,” in E. J. Pace, ed., Christian Cartoons by E. J. Pace (Philadelphia: The Sunday School Times Company, 1922), 67, available at https://archive.org/details/christiancartoon00pace/page/n67/mode/2up; Ernest James Pace, “In the Snare of the Devil,” in ibid., 81, available at https://archive.org/details/christiancartoon00pace/page/n81/mode/2up.
24 Andrew T. Coates, “The Bible and Graphic Novels and Comic Books,” in Paul C. Gutjahr, ed., The Oxford Handbook of the Bible in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 451–67, 457.
25 Michael Kazin, A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan (Westminster: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2007), 263; Noll, A History of Christianity, 383. Seven Questions in Dispute was previously a collection of Bryan’s articles that appeared in the Sunday School Times from 12 Jan. 1924 until 1 March 1924.
26 Pace likely drew inspiration from Beard’s “Steps That Lead Down.” Frank Beard, “Steps That Lead Down,” in Beard, ed., One Hundred Sermon Pictures (Chicago: The Ram’s Horn Company, 1902), 87, available at https://archive.org/details/onehundredsermon0000bear/page/n87/mode/2up?view=theater.
27 Ernest James Pace, “The Descent of the Modernists,” in William Jennings Bryan, Seven Questions in Dispute (New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1924), vi, available at https://archive.org/details/sevenquestionsin011570mbp/page/n7/mode/2up.
28 Niels Reeh, Secularization Revisited: Teaching of Religion and the Denmark State. 1721–2006 (Cham: Springer, 2016), 34; Clyde R. Forsberg Jr. and Phillip Gordon Mackintosh, B. H. Roberts, Moral Geography, and the Making of a Modern Racist (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2022), 25; Colleen McDannell and Bernhard Lang, Heaven: A History (New Haven, CT: Yale Nota Bene, 2001), 337.
29 Seven Questions in Dispute was previously a collection of Bryan’s articles that appeared in the Sunday School Times from 12 Jan. 1924 until 1 March 1924. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 102.
30 William Jennings Bryan, Seven Questions in Dispute (New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1924), 10, 75. Bryan’s other works include Bryan, The Prince of Peace (Chicago: The Reilly & Britton Co., 1909); and Bryan, The Sign of the Times (New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1912). Sutton, American Apocalypse, 79–80.
31 Harry Emerson Fosdick, “Shall the Fundamentalists Win?”, in Ryan Halford Ross, ed., Harry Emerson Fosdick: Persuasive Preacher (New York: Greenwood Press, 1922), 79–89, 81.
32 Ernest James Pace, “No Middle Ground Only a Chasm,” Sunday School Times, 66, 34 (23 Aug. 1924), 502, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1924-08-23_66_34/page/502/mode/2up; “What’s the Difference between Modernist and Fundamentalist?”, Sunday School Times, 66, 34 (23 Aug. 1924), 502, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1924-08-23_66_34/page/502/mode/2up.
33 See Ernest Renan, Renan’s Life of Jesus, trans. William G. Hutchinson (London: Walter Scott, 1897), 240; and David Friedrich Strauss, The Life of Jesus Critically Examined, trans. George Eliot (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1892), 140. Fundamentalists regarded Renan and Strauss as synonymous with modernist theology.
34 Islam is a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion. It derives from a series of revelations that the Angel Gabriel commanded the Prophet Muhammad (570–632) to recite over a period of twenty-three years. These revelations became the Qur’ān (the Recitation). Although Muslims revere Muhammad, he is not divine and not the object of worship. He is a prophet of God (Allah), and it is Allah that Muslims worship in their prayers and in their lives. Muhammad is the last prophet of Allah in Islam, and before Muhammad came Isa, or Jesus. It is incumbent to state that the most widespread form of Islam derives from Sunni beliefs and practices, but other schools of thought do exist – the most obvious example being Shi’a Islam – and this article indicates these variances when necessary. Both Sunni and Shi’a Muslims adhere to five pillars of Islamic faith. The difference between the groups relates to the leadership of Muslims following the Prophet Muhammad’s death.
35 Samuel Zwemer, “Bridging the Chasm between Mohammedism and Christianity,” Christian Workers Magazine, 19, 4 (Dec. 1918), 240–43, 241. Jesus is not the Son of God for Muslims. Despite experiencing supernatural interventions, Jesus himself is not divine. The Qur’ān’s Surah Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2:285 explains that he was no different from other messengers of God.
36 Zwemer, 241. Reference to the virgin birth appears in Surah At-Tarim (Banning, Prohibition) 66:12, and some schools even interpret Surah Az-Zukhruf (Ornaments of Gold, Luxury) 43:61 as referring to the Second Coming of Jesus. Gabriel Said Reynolds, “The Islamic Christ,” in Francesca Aran Murphy, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Christology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 183–98, 190.
37 Ibid. Whilst the Qur’ān does include the crucifixion (Surah An-Nisa (The Women) 4:157), Jesus did not die upon the cross. Allah raised him to heaven only for another to die in his place, and some schools believe this to be Judas. Gabriel Said Reynolds, “The Muslim Jesus: Dead or Alive?”, Bulletin of SOAS, 72, 2 (2009), 237–58, 237.
38 See the concluding discussion for further analysis.
39 Ernest James Pace, “Behind the Bars of Satan’s Lies,” Sunday School Times, 77, 23 (8 June 1935), 394, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1935-06-08_77_23/page/394/mode/2up.
40 William Ellery Channing, A Sermon Delivered at the Ordination of the Rev. Jared Sparks, to the Pastoral Care of the First Independent Church in Baltimore, May 5, 1819 (Boston, MA: American Unitarian Association, 1919), 20, 21, 24.
41 “E. J. Pace: Christian Cartoonist.” See the following cartoons for non-Islam-inspired attacks upon modernism: Ernest James Pace, “Another Pied Pipe,” Sunday School Times, 64, 19 (13 May 1922), 288, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1922-05-13_64_19/page/n9/mode/2up; Pace, “Fortunately the Ethiopian Didn’t Meet Up with a Modernist,” Sunday School Times, 76, 39 (29 Sept. 1934), 613, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1934-09-29_76_39/page/612/mode/2up.
42 Ernest James Pace, “Making a ‘Shorter’ Bible,” Christian Workers Magazine, 19, 11 (July 1919), 795, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_moody_1919-07_19_11/page/794/mode/2up.
43 John Newton Wright, “Moslem Unitarianism,” Christian Workers Magazine, 19, 11 (July 1919), 795–97, 795.
44 Ibid., 796.
45 Deism emerged in the late seventeenth century. Rationality and reason were tools with which Deists used to question Christianity, and they often rejected God’s direct revelations to humanity. Susan Hardman Moore, “Deism,” in Ian A. McFarland, David A. S. Fergusson, Karen Kilby, and Iain R. Torrance, eds., The Cambridge Dictionary of Christian Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 135. Deism also had a close relationship to American Unitarianism. Gary J. Dorrien, The Making of American Liberal Theology: Imagining Progressive Religion 1805–1900 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 1–57.
46 Henry Wilder Foote, “Introduction,” in O. I. A. Roche, ed., The Jefferson Bible: with Annotated Commentaries on Religion of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1964), 19–24.
47 Thomas Jefferson, The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth (New York: Wilfred Funk, 1941), 132.
48 Saba Mahmood, “Reason and Secular Affect: An Incommensurable Divide,” Critical Inquiry, 35, 4 (Summer 2009), 836–62.
49 Gottschalk and Greenberg, Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Sentiment, 82.
50 Ibid., 860.
51 Sutton, American Apocalypse, 301.
52 Pace, “Making a ‘Shorter’ Bible.”
53 Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qur’ān and the Bible: Text and Commentary (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press), 2018, 1–15.
54 John V. Tolan, Faces of Muhammad: Western Perceptions of the Prophet of Islam from the Middle Ages to Today (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 3.
55 Ibid., 44–72, 166, 195; Reynolds, The Qur’ān and the Bible, 15.
56 See, for example, Ernest James Pace, “Thy Home Is with the Humble Lord,” Sunday School Times, 59, 30 (28 July 1917), 421, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1917-07-28_59_30/page/420/mode/2up; and Pace, “Sorry, I Can’t Stay,” in Pace, Christian Cartoons, 55, available at https://archive.org/details/christiancartoon00pace/page/n55/mode/2up.
57 Tolan, 25.
58 Lewis Ayres, “Arian Controversy,” in McFarland et al., The Cambridge Dictionary of Christian Theology, 31–32, 31.
59 Ian A. McFarland, “Socinianism,” in McFarland et al., The Cambridge Dictionary of Christian Theology, 478.
60 Tolan, 49, 116, 190.
61 Bryan, Seven Questions, 29–43.
62 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 208; Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63. Webb did not convert to Ahmadiyya Islam, and there is uncertain evidence for its theological influence upon him. Umar F. Abd-Allah, A Muslim in Victorian America: The Life of Alexander Russell Webb (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 62–63.
63 The Moslem Sunrise – renamed the Muslim Sunrise – continues to be a publication of America’s Ahmadiyya community. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, 121.
64 Critics have demonstrated that estimating the number of Muslims in America by the 1920s is impossible because of a lack of recorded evidence. GhaneaBassiri, 137; Rhett, Representations of Islam, 23. A figure of 40,000, however, does appear in the literature. Sally Howell, “Laying the Groundwork for American Muslim Histories: 1865–1965,” in Juliane Hammer and Omid Safi, eds., The Cambridge Companion to American Islam (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 45–64, 47.
65 The use of the terms “Mohammedanism” for Islam and “Mohammedan” for a Muslim was common in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth centuries. Mohammed Alexander Russell Webb, “The Influence of Social Condition,” in John Wesley Hanson, ed., The Addresses and Papers Delivered before the Parliament, and an Abstract of the Congresses Held in the Art Institute, Chicago, Aug. 25 to Oct. 15, 1893, under the Auspices of the World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago: W. B. Conkey, 1894), 523.
66 Gottschalk and Greenberg, Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Sentiment, 21.
67 Mufti Muhammad Sadiq, “Muhammadan Faith Explained,” Moslem Sunrise, 1, 5 (July 1922), 118, available at https://muslimsunrise.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/1922_issue_3.pdf.
68 For biographical information see History of Ahmadiyatt United Kingdom, “Mr. Charles Francis Sievwright ([sic] Muhammad Abdul Haqra visits Qadian,” History of Ahmadiyatt (April 2024), at https://history.ahmadiyya.uk/mr-charles-francis-sievwright-muhammad-abdul-haq-ra-visits-qadian.
69 Mohammed Adb Al Haqq, “How Prohibition Is Prohibited in America,” Moslem Sunrise, 1, 3 (Jan. 1922), 55–59, 58, available at https://muslimsunrise.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/1922_issue_1.pdf.
70 “Jesus Was Crucified, but Did Not Die on the Cross (A Survey of the Literature on the Subject),” Moslem Sunrise, 1, 5 (July 1922), 106–8, 106, available at https://muslimsunrise.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/1922_issue_3.pdf.
71 Fazal Ahmad, “Arius: The Trinity Controversy in the Church,” Al Islam (Sept. 1996), at www.alislam.org/articles/arius-trinity-controversy-in-church.
72 Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Emergence of Islam: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2023), 146.
73 Matthew Aaron Bennett, “Is Arius the Father of Islam?”, The Center for Baptist Renewal (10 Jan. 2022), at www.centerforbaptistrenewal.com/blog/2021/12/27/is-arius-the-father-of-islam.
74 Bryan, Seven Questions, 67.
75 Fosdick, “Shall the Fundamentalists Win?”, 81.
76 Zwemer, “Bridging the Chasm,” 241.
77 Pace’s modernist owes much to Beard’s “Heading Wrong.” A gown-and-mortar-board-wearing scholar, who bears an uncanny likeness to Pace’s modernist, holding a book entitled “Scholasticism,” drives to “The Desert of Doubt.” Frank Beard, “Heading Wrong,” in Beard, One Hundred Sermon Pictures, 36, available at https://archive.org/details/onehundredsermon0000bear/page/n35/mode/2up?view=theater.
78 Gottschalk and Greenberg, Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Sentiment, 82.
79 Rhett, Representations of Islam, 76, 91, 105.
80 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 144.
81 Ernest James Pace, “Where All Three Stand Together,” Moody Monthly, 21, 7 (March 1921), cover, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_moody_1921-03_21_7.
82 Rhett, 91. See also “The New Teutonic Alliance,” Sunday Star, 686, 27,053 (19 May 1918), 1, available at Sunday Star, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1918-05-19/ed-1/seq-1.
83 Ernest James Pace, “They Glorified Him Not,” Sunday School Times, 65, 3 (20 Jan. 1923), 40, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1923-01-20_65_3/page/n7/mode/2up.
84 Susan Jacoby, The Great Agnostic Robert Ingersoll and American Freethought (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 17.
85 Robert Ingersoll, Orthodoxy: A Lecture (New York: C. P. Farrell, 1884), 24.
86 Robert Ingersoll, Voltaire: A Lecture (New York: C. P. Farrell, 1895), 25.
87 William T. Cavanaugh, “The Invention of Fanaticism,” Modern Theology, 27, 2 (April 2011), 226–37, 234; Tolan, Faces of Muhammad, 175.
88 Tolan, 131.
89 Chris Allen, Islamophobia (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010), p. 29.
90 Ernest James Pace, “One Thing We Are Determined Not to Know,” Sunday School Times, 63, 38 (17 Sept. 1921), 501, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1921-09-17_63_38/page/n7/mode/2up.
91 Ibid.
92 Ernest James Pace, “Enemy Tactics,” Sunday School Times, 77, 38 (21 Sept. 1935), 610, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1935-09-21_77_38/page/610/mode/2up.
93 Zwemer, “Bridging the Chasm,” 240.
94 Noll, A History of Christianity, 533; Robert R. Mathisen, Critical Issues in American Religious History: A Reader (Waco: Baylor University Press, 2001), 434.
95 Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 168.
96 Ibid.; A. H. Strong, Systemic Theology: A Compendium and Commonplace Book Designed for the Use of Theological Students (New York: A. C. Armstrong and Son, 1889), 468.
97 Fosdick, “Shall the Fundamentalists Win,” 83.
98 Bryan, Seven Questions, 30.
99 Pace likely borrowed from Beard’s cartoon entitled “The Neglected Book” (1902). for its use of the busts of Danté and Shakespeare see Frank Beard, “The Neglected Book,” in Beard, One Hundred Sermon Pictures, 78, available at https://archive.org/details/onehundredsermon0000bear/page/n77/mode/2up?view=theater.
100 Ernest James Pace, “Just One of Many,” Sunday School Times, 65, 50 (15 Dec. 1923), 784, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1923-12-15_65_50/page/784/mode/2up.
101 Tolan, Faces of Muhammad, 233.
102 See, for example, Ernest Gordon, “A Survey of Religious Thought and Life,” Sunday School Times, 83, 24 (14 June 1941), 486–87, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1941-06-14_83_24/page/486/mode/2up; “With the New Books,” Sunday School Times, 83, 25 (June 21, 1941), 518–19, 518, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1941-06-21_83_25/page/518/mode/2up.
103 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 165–227; Howell, “Laying the Groundwork,” 51.
104 Philip Jenkins, Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 121–48.
105 Ibid., 21, 101.
106 Ernest James Pace, “The Jesus Way Is the Sway Way of Jesus,” Sunday School Times, 83, 26 (28 June 1941), 530, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1941-06-28_83_26/page/530/mode/2up.
107 Fosdick, “Shall the Fundamentalists Win,” 83.
108 Ernest James Pace, “The Only Empty Grave among Them,” Sunday School Times, 84, 22 (30 May 1942), 438, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1942-05-30_84_22/page/10/mode/2up.
109 Abell cartooned for the Moody Monthly from around 1930 until 1948. Urban Serano Abell, “Christ Is Not Here,” Moody Monthly, 34, 7 (March 1934), 321, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_moody_1934-03_34_7/page/320/mode/2up.
110 Ramsay, Charles L., “History’s Graveyard,” in Ramsay, Charles L., ed., 101 Christian Cartoons (Wheaton, IL: Sword of the Lord Publishing, 1949), 43Google Scholar, available at https://biblebelievers.com/ramsay_album/pages/ramsey_cartoons043.htm.
111 Ramsay, Charles L., “A Monument to Dr. E. J. Pace,” Sunday School Times, 88, 33 (17 Aug. 1946), 742Google Scholar, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1946-08-17_88_33/page/742/mode/2up.
112 See, for example, Urban Serano Abell, “Modernism’s Deadly Work,” Moody Monthly, 35, 9 (May 1935), 429, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_moody_1935-05_35_9/page/428/mode/2up; and Charles Lowe Ramsay, “Sabotage,” in Ramsay, 101 Christian Cartoons, 13, available at https://biblebelievers.com/ramsay_album/pages/ramsey_cartoons013.htm.
113 Carle, Robert, “Cartoon Crisis: Islam and Danish Liberalism,” Society, 44, 1 (Nov.–Dec. 2006), 80–88Google Scholar; Alessandro Zagato, The Event of Charlie Hebdo: Imaginaries of Freedom and Control (New York: Berghahn Books).
114 Chick, Jack T. LLC, Allah Had No Son (Ontario, CA: Chick Publications, 1994)Google Scholar, available at www.chick.com/products/tract?stk=0042; Chick, Is Allah Like You? (Ontario, CA: Chick Publications, 2010), available at www.chick.com/products/tract?stk=1058; Chick, Camels in the Tent (Ontario, CA: Chick Publications, 2012), available at www.chick.com/products/tract?stk=1081.
115 Chick, Allah Had No Son, 5.
116 In “The Listening Ear” the shadow of a Moroccan Muslim – for Pace signs the cartoon “Morocco 1934” – covers a cowering, niqab-wearing woman with qualities of “deceit,” “arrogance,” “bigotry,” “unbridled lust,” and “oppression.” Ernest James Pace, “The Old Story of Romans 10:2–4,” Sunday School Times, 77, 16 (20 April 1935), 281, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1935-04-20_77_16/page/280/mode/2up. In “The Old Story” an unseen Muslim holds a megaphone labelled “Mohammedanism” and speaks the words of the Shahada, the Islamic declaration of faith, over the continent of Africa. His caption explains how Islam “enthrones bigotry, cruelty, and lust” in addition to “the degradation of women by polygamy, concubinage, and easy divorce.” Ernest James Pace, “The Listening Ear,” Sunday School Times, 78, 33 (15 Aug. 1936), 543, available at https://archive.org/details/sim_sunday-school-times_1936-08-15_78_33/page/542/mode/2up.
117 Allen, Islamophobia, 29.