Hostname: page-component-6766d58669-mzsfj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-22T11:55:41.822Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Emerging Nosocomial Pathogens Cryptosporidium, Escherichia coli 0157: H7, Helicobacter pylori, and Hepatitis C: Epidemiology, Environmental Survival, Efficacy of Disinfection, and Control Measures

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2015

David J. Weber  and
William A. Rutala
David J. Weber*
Affiliation:
Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina (UNC) at Chapel Hill, and the UNC Health Care System, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
William A. Rutala
Affiliation:
Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina (UNC) at Chapel Hill, and the UNC Health Care System, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
*
CB #7030 Burnett-Womack, 547, Division of Infectious Diseases, UNC at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7030
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

New and emerging infectious diseases pose a threat to public health and may be responsible for nosocomial outbreaks. Cryptosporidium parvum and Escherichia coli are gastrointestina pathogens that have caused nosocomial infections via person-to-person transmission, environmental contamination, or contaminated water or food. Helicobacter pylori has been transmitted via inadequately disinfected endoscopes. Finally, hepatitis C may be acquired by healthcare personnel by percutaneous or mucous membrane exposure to blood or between patients by use of contaminated blood products or via environmental contamination. Rigorous adherence to Standard Precautions, Contact Precautions for patients with infectious diarrhea, disinfection of environmental surfaces, and appropriate disinfection of endoscopes are adequate to prevent nosocomial acquisition of these pathogens.

Information

Type
Disinfection and Sterilization
Information
Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology , Volume 22 , Issue 5 , May 2001 , pp. 306 - 315
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America 2001

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

1.Institute of Medicine. Emerging Infections: Microbial Threats to Health in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences; 1992.Google Scholar
2.Morse, SS. Factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 1995;1:7–15.Google Scholar
3.Wilson, ME. Travel and the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 1995;1:39–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.Mayer, KH, Opal, SM. Unusual nosocomial pathogens. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1989;3:883–889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Connolly, GM, Dryden, MS, Shanson, DC, Gazzard, BG. Cryptosporidial diarrhoea in AIDS and its treatment. Gut 1988;29:593–597.Google Scholar
6.Gentile, G, Venditti, M, Micozzi, A, Caprioli, A, Donelli, G, Tirindelli, C, et al. Cryptosporidiosis in patients with hematologic malignancies. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13:842–846.Google Scholar
7.Wolfson, JS, Richter, JM, Waldron, MA, Weber, DJ, McCarthy, DM, Hopkins, CC. Cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent patients. N Engl J Med 1985;312:1278–1282.Google Scholar
8.Barwick, RS, Levy, DA, Craun, GF, Beach, MJ, Calderon, RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks—United States, 1997-1998. Mor Mortal Wkly Rep CDC Surveill Summ 2000 May 26, 2000;49:1–21.Google Scholar
9.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Foodborne outbreak of diarrheal illness associated with Cryptosporidium parvum—Minnesota 1995. MMWR 1996;45:783–784.Google Scholar
10.Quiroz, ES, Bern, C, MacArthur, JR, Xiao, L, Fletcher, M, Arrowood, MJ, et al. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis linked to a foodhandler. J Infect Dis 2000;181:695–700.Google Scholar
11.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreaks of Escherichia coli O157:1-17 infection and cryptosporidiosis associated with drinking unpasteurized apple cider—Connecticut and New York, October 1996. MMWR 1997;46:4–8.Google Scholar
12.Sorvillo, FJ, Fujioka, K, Nahlen, B, Torney, MP, Kebabjian, RS, Mascola, L. Swimming-associated cryptosporidiosis. Am J Public Health 1992;82:742–744.Google Scholar
13.MacKenzie, WR, Kazmierczak, JJ, Davis, JP. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a resort swimming pool. Epidemiol Infect 1995;115:545–553.Google Scholar
14.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with an interactive water fountain at a beachside park—Florida, 1999. MMWR 2000;49:565–568.Google Scholar
15.Reif, JS, Wimmer, L, Smith, JA, Dargatz, DA, Cheney, JM. Human cryptosporidiosis associated with an epizootic in calves. Am J Public Health 1989;79:1528–1530.Google Scholar
16.Current, WL, Garcia, LS. Cryptosporidiosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1991;4:325–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17.Guerrant, RL. Cryptosporidiosis: an emerging, highly infectious threat. Emerg Infect Dis 1997;3:51–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18.Addiss, DG, Juranek, DD, Schwartz, DA. Cryptosporidiosis. In: Horsburgh, CR JrNelson, AM, eds. Pathology of Emerging Infections. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 1997:243–256.Google Scholar
19.Guerrant, RL, Thielman, NM. Emerging enteric protozoa: Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, and Microsporidia. In: Scheld, WM, Armstrong, D, Hughes, JM, eds. Emerging Infections I. Washington DC: ASM Press; 1998:233–245.Google Scholar
20.DuPont, HL, Chappell, CL, Sterling, CR, Okhuysen, PC, Rose, JB, Jakubowski, W. The infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy volunteers. N Engl J Med 1995;332:855–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21.Hass, CN, Rose, JB. Reconciliation of microbial risk models and outbreak epidemiology: the case of the Milwaukee outbreak. Proceedings of the American Water Works Association 1994;517–523.Google Scholar
22.Rose, JB. Environmental ecology of Cryptosporidium and public health implications. Annu Rev Public Health 1997;18:135–161.Google Scholar
23.Laberge, I, Griffiths, MW, Griffiths, MW. Prevalence, detection and control of Cryptosporidium parvum in food. Int J Food Microbiol 1996;32:1–26.Google Scholar
24.Baxby, D, Hart, CA, Taylor, C. Human cryptosporidiosis: a possible case of hospital cross infection. BMJ 1983;287:1760–1761.Google Scholar
25.Koch, KL, Phillips, DJ, Aber, RC, Current, WL. Cryptosporidiosis in hospital personnel: evidence for person-to-person transmission. Ann Intern Med 1985;102:593–596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Martino, P, Gentile, G, Caprioli, A, Baldassarri, L, Donelli, G, Arcese, W, et al. Hospital-acquired cryptosporidiosis in a bone marrow transplantation unit. J Infect Dis 1988;158:647–648.Google Scholar
27.Sarabia-Arce, S, Salazar-Lindo, E, Gilman, RH, Naranjo, J, Miranda, E. Case-control study of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in Peruvian children hospitalized for diarrhea: possible association with malnutrition and nosocomial infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990;9:627–631.Google Scholar
28.Navarrete, S, Stetler, HC, Avila, C, Garcia Aranda, JASantos-Preciado, JI. An outbreak of Cryptosporidium diarrhea in a pediatric hospital. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991;10:248–250.Google Scholar
29.Ravn, P, Lundgren, JD, Kjaeldgaard, P, Holten-Anderson, W, Hojlyng, N, Nielsen, JO, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in AIDS patients. BMJ 1991;302:277–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Arikan, S, Erguven, S, Akyon, Y, Gunalp, A. Cryptosporidiosis in immuno-compromised patients in a Turkish university hospital. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung 1999;46:33–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31.Centers for Disease Control. Cryptosporidiosis among children attending day-care centers—Georgia, Pennsylvania, Michigan, California, New Mexico. MMWR 1984;33:599–601.Google Scholar
32.Alpert, G, Bell, LM, Kirkpatrick, CE, Budnick, LD, Campos, JM, Friedman, HM, et al. Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in a day-care center. Pediatr 1986;77:152–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Heijbel, H, Slaine, K, Seigel, B, Wall, P, McNabb, SJ, Gibbons, W, et al. Outbreak of diarrhea in a day care center with spread to household members: the role of Cryptosporidium. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1987;6:532–535.Google Scholar
34.Tangermann, RH, Gordon, S, Wiesner, P, Kreckman, L. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in a day-care center in Georgia. Am J Epidemiol 1991;133:471–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Konkle, DM, Nelson, KM, Lunn, DP. Nosocomial transmission of Cryptosporidium in a veterinary hospital. J Vet Intern Med 1997;11:340–343.Google Scholar
36.Gostin, LO, Lazzarini, Z, Neslund, VS, Osterholm, MT. Water quality laws and waterborne diseases: Cryptosporidium and other emerging pathogens. Am J Public Health 2000;90:847–853.Google ScholarPubMed
37.MacKenzie, WR, Hoxie, NJ, Proctor, ME, Gradus, MS, Blair, KA, Peterson, DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med 1994;331:161–167.Google Scholar
38.Goldstein, ST, Juranek, DD, Ravenholt, O, Hightower, AW, Martin, DG, Mesnik, JL, et al. Cryptosporidiosis: an outbreak associated with drinking water despite state-of-the-art water treatment. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:459–468.Google Scholar
39.Chauret, C, Nolan, K, Chen, P, Springthorpe, S, Sattar, S. Aging of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in river water and their susceptibility to disinfection by chlorine and monochloramine. Can J Microbiol 1998;44:1154–1160.Google Scholar
40.Robertson, LJ, Campbell, AT, Smith, HV. Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under various environmental pressures. Appl Environ Microbiol 1992;58:3494–3500.Google Scholar
41.Barbee, SL, Weber, DJ, Sobsey, MD, Rutala, WA. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst infectivity by disinfection and sterilization processes. Gastrointest Endosc 1999;49:605–611.Google Scholar
42.Anderson, BC. Effect of drying on the infectivity of cryptosporidia-laden calf feces for 3- to-7-day-old mice. Am J Vet Res 1986;47:2272–2273.Google Scholar
43.Wilson, JA, Margolin, AB. The efficacy of three common hospital liquid germicides to inactivate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. J Hosp Infect 1999;42:231–237.Google Scholar
44.Fayer, R, Graczyk, TK, Cranfield, MR, Trout, JM. Gaseous disinfection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol 1996;62:3908–3909.Google Scholar
45.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999 USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR 1999;48(RR-10):1–59.Google Scholar
46.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: recommendations of the CDC, the Infectious Disease Society of America, and the American Society of Blood and Marrow Transplantation. MMWR 2000;49(RR-10):1–128.Google Scholar
47.Bouchier, I. Cryptosporidiosis in water supplies. Third report of the group of experts to: Department of Environment, Transport, and the Regions and Department of Health, London, UK: DETR, 1998.Google Scholar
48.Garner, JS, Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:53–80.Google Scholar
49.Bruce, BB, Blass, MA, Blumberg, HM, Lennox, JL, del Rio, C, Horsburg, CR. Risk of Cryptosporidium parvum transmission between hospital roommates. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:947–950.Google Scholar
50.Altekruse, SF, Cohen, ML, Swerdlow, DL. Emerging foodborne diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 1997;3:285–293.Google Scholar
51.Slutsker, L, Altekruse, SF, Swerdlow, DL. Foodborne diseases: emerging pathogens and trends. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1998;12:199–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52.Swerdlow, DL, Altekruse, SF. Food-borne diseases in the global village: what's on the plate for the 21st century. In: Scheld, WM, Craig, WA, Hughes, JM, eds. Emerging Infections 2. Washington, DC: ASM Press;1998:273–294.Google Scholar
53.Mead, PS, Slutsker, L, Dietz, V, McCaig, LF, Bresee, JS, Shapiro, C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 1999;5:607–625.Google Scholar
54.Armstrong, GL, Hollingsworth, J, Morris, JG JrEmerging foodborne pathogens: Escherichia coli O157:H7 as a model of entry of a new pathogen into the food supply of the developed world. Epidemiol Rev 1996;18:29–51.Google Scholar
55.Park, S, Worobo, RW, Durst, RA. Escherichia coli O157:H7 as an emerging foodborne pathogen: a literature review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 1999;39:481–502.Google Scholar
56.Riley, LW, Remis, RS, Helgerson, SD, McGee, HB, Wells, JG, Davis, BR, et al. Hemorrhagic colitis associated with a rare Escherichia coli serotype. N Engl J Med 1983;308:681–685.Google Scholar
57.Barrett, TJ, Lior, H, Green, JH, Khakhria, R, Wells, JG, Bell, BP, et al. Laboratory investigation of a multistate food-borne outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 by using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and phage typing. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:3013–3017.Google Scholar
58.Whittam, TS, McGraw, EA, Reid, SD. Pathogenic Escherichia coli O157:H7: a model for emerging infectious diseases. In: Krause, RM, ed. Emerging Infections: Biomedical Research Reports. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1998:163–183.Google Scholar
59.Sparling, PH. Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreaks in the United States, 1982-1996. JAMA 1998;213:1733.Google Scholar
60.Verweyen, HM, Karch, H, Brandis, M, Zimmerhackl, LB. Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli infections: following transmission routes. Pediatr Nephrol 1999;14:73–83.Google Scholar
61.Parry, SM, Salmon, RL. Sporadic STEC O157 infection: secondary household transmission in Wales. Emerg Infect Dis 1998;4:657–661.Google Scholar
62.Tuttle, J, Gomez, T, Doyle, MP, Wells, JG, Zhao, T, Tauxe, RV, et al. Lessons from a large outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections: insights into the infectious dose and method of widespread contamination of hamburger patties. Epidemiol Infect 1999;122:185–192.Google Scholar
63.Tilden, J JrYoung, W, McNamara, AM, Custer, C, Boesel, B, Lambert-Fair, MA, et al. A new route of transmission of Escherichia coli: infection from dry fermented salami. Am J Public Health 1996;86:1142–1145.Google Scholar
64.Karmali, MA, Arbus, GS, Petric, M, Patrick, ML, Roscoe, M, Shaw, J, et al. Hospital-acquired Escherichia coli O157:H7 associated haemolytic uraemic syndrome in a nurse. Lancet 1988;1(8584):526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65.Kohli, HS, Chaudhuri, AKR, Todd, WTA, Mitchell, AAB, Liddell, KG. A severe outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 in two psychogeriatric wards. J Public Health Med 1994;16:11–15.Google Scholar
66.Preston, M, Borczyk, A, Davidson, R. Hospital outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 associated with a rare phage type—Ontario. Can Communicable Dis Rep 1997;23:33–36.Google ScholarPubMed
67.Cheasty, T, Robertson, R, Chart, H, Mannion, P, Syed, Q, Garvey, R, et al. The use of serodiagnosis in the retrospective investigation of a nursery outbreak associated with Escherichia coli O157:H7. J Clin Pathol 1998;51:498–501.Google Scholar
68.Weightman, NC, Kirby, PJG. Nosocomial Escherichia coli O157 infection. J Hosp Infect 2000;44:107–111.Google Scholar
69.Spika, JS, Parsons, JE, Nordenberg, D, Wells, JG, Gunn, RA, Blake, PA. Hemolytic uremic syndrome and diarrhea associated with Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a day care center. J Pediatr 1986;109:287–291.Google Scholar
70.Belongia, EA, Osterholm, MT, Soler, JT, Ammend, DA, Braun, JE, MacDonald, LK. Transmission of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection in Minnesota child day-care facilities. JAMA 1993;269:883–888.Google Scholar
71.Allaby, MAK, Mayon-White, R. Escherichia coli O157: outbreak in a day nursery. Comm Dis Rep CDR Review 1995;5(1)R4-6.Google Scholar
72.Ryan, CA, Tauxe, RV, Hosek, GW, Wells, JG, Stoesz, PA, McFadden, HW Jret al. Escherichia coli O157:H7 diarrhea in a nursing home: clinical, epidemiological, and pathological findings. J Infect Dis 1986;154:631–638.Google Scholar
73.Carter, AO, Borczyk, AA, Carlson, JA, Harvey, B, Hockin, JC, Karmali, MA, et al. A severe outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated hemorrhagic colitis in a nursing home. N Engl J Med 1987;317:1496–1500.Google Scholar
74.Heuvelink, AE, Bleumink, B, van den Biggelaar, FL, Te Giffel, MC, Beumer, RR, de Boer, E. Occurrence and survival of verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli 0157 in raw cow's milk in The Netherlands. J Food Prot 1998;61:1597–1601.Google Scholar
75.Himathongkham, S, Riemann, H. Destruction of Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes in chicken manure by drying and/or gassing with ammonia. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1999;171:179–182.Google Scholar
76.Beuchat, LR. Survival of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 in bovine feces applied to lettuce and the effectiveness of chlorinated water as a disinfectant. J Food Prot 1999;62:845–849.Google Scholar
77.Taormina, PJ, Beuchat, LR. Comparison of chemical treatments to eliminate enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 on alfalfa seeds. J Food Prot 1999;62:318–324.Google Scholar
78.Taormina, PJ, Beuchat, LR. Behavior of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 on alfalfa sprouts during the sprouting process as influenced by treatments with various chemicals. J Food Prot 1999;62:850–856.Google Scholar
79.Castillo, A, Lucia, LM, Kemp, GK, Acuff, GR. Reduction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella typhimurium on beef carcass surfaces using acidified sodium chlorite. J Food Prot 1999;62:580–584.Google Scholar
80.Rice, EW, Clark, RM, Johnson, CH. Chlorine inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7. Emerg Infect Dis 1999;5:461–463.Google Scholar
81.Venkitanarayanan, KS, Ezeike, GO, Hung, YC, Doyle, MP. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes on plastic kitchen cutting boards by electrolyzed oxidizing water. J Food Prot 1999;62:857–860.Google Scholar
82.Rutala, WA, Barbee, SL, Aguiar, NC, Sobsey, MD, Weber, DJ. Antimicrobial activity of home disinfectants and natural products against potential human pathogens. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:33–38.Google Scholar
83.US Food and Drug Administration. Food Code. Recommendations of the United States Public Health Service. Springfield, VA: FDA, National Technical Information; 1995.Google Scholar
84.Taormina, PJ, Beuchat, LR, Slutsker, L. Infections associated with eating seed sprouts: an international concern. Emerg Infect Dis 1999;5:626–634.Google Scholar
85.Warren, JR, Marshall, B. Unidentified curved bacilli on gastric epithelium in active chronic gastritis. Lancet 1983;1:1273–1275.Google ScholarPubMed
86.Marshall, BJ, Warren, JR. Unidentified curved bacilli in the stomach of patients with gastritis and peptic ulceration. Lancet 1984;1:1311–1314.Google Scholar
87.Gold, BD, Marty, A. Helicobacter pylori. In: Horsburgh, CR JrNelson, AM, eds. Pathology of Emerging Infections. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1997:225–241.Google Scholar
88.Parsonnet, J. Helicobacter pylori. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1998;12:185–197.Google Scholar
89.Kuipers, EJ, Blaser, MJ. Helicobacter pylori and gastroduodenal disorders. In: Scheld, WM, Armstrong, D, Hughes, JM, ed. Emerging Infections I. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology Press; 1998:191–206.Google Scholar
90.Rupnow, MF, Shachter, RD, Owens, DK, Parsonnet, J. A dynamic transmission model for predicting trends in Helicobacter pylori and associated diseases in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2000;6:228–237.Google Scholar
91.Sahay, P, Axon, ATR. Reservoirs of Helicobacter pylori and modes of transmission. Helicobacter 1996;1:175–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92.Thomas, JE, Gibson, GR, Darboe, MK, Dale, A, Weaver, LT. Isolation of Helicobacter pylori from human faeces. Lancet 1992;340:1194–1195.Google Scholar
93.Parsonnet, J, Shmuely, H, Haggerty, T. Fecal and oral shedding of Helicobacter pylori from healthy infected adults. JAMA 1999;282:2240–2245.Google Scholar
94.Hardo, PG, Tugnait, A, Hassan, F, Lynch, DAF, West, AP, Mapstone, NP, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection and dental care. Gut 1995;37:44–46.Google Scholar
95.Begue, RE, Gonzales, JL, Correa-Gracian, H, Tang, SC. Dietary risk factors associated with the transmission of Helicobacter pylori in Lima, Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998;59:637–640.Google Scholar
96.Klein, PD, Gastrointestinal Physiology Working Group, Graham, DY, Gaillour, A, Opekun, AR, Smith, EO. Water source as risk factor for Helicobacter pylori infection in Peruvian children. Lancet 1991;337:1503–1506.Google Scholar
97.Tytgat, GN. Endoscopic transmission of Helicobacter pylori. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1995;9(suppl 2):105–110.Google Scholar
98.Gullini, S, Boccini, S, Contarini, D, Macario, F, Basso, O. Is transmission of Campylobacter pylori by endoscopic examination possible? Endoscopy 1988;20:162.Google Scholar
99.Ramsey, EJ, Carey, KV, Peterson, WL, Jackson, JJ, Murphy, FK, Read, NW, et al. Epidemic gastritis with hypochlorhydria. Gastroenterology 1979;76:1449–1457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100.Gledhill, T, Leicester, RJ, Addis, B, Lightfoot, N, Barnard, J, Viney, N, et al. Epidemic hypochlorhydria. BMJ 1985;290:1383–1386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
101.Miyaji, H, Kohli, Y, Azuma, T, Ito, S, Hirai, M, Ito, Y, et al. Endoscopic cross-infection with Helicobacter pylori. Lancet 1995;345:464.Google Scholar
102.Debongnie, JC, Bouckaert, A. Transmission of Helicobacter pylori by endoscopy? Endoscopy 1993;25:436.Google Scholar
103.Wu, MS, Wang, JT, Yang, JC, Wang, HH, Sheu, JC, Chen, DS, et al. Effective reduction of Helicobacter pylori infection after upper gastrointestinal endoscopy by mechanical washing of the endoscope. Endoscopy 1996;43:1660–1664.Google Scholar
104.Langenberg, W, Rauws, EAJ, Oudbier, JH, Tytgat, GNJ. Patient-to-patient-transmission of Campylobacter pylori infection by fiberoptic gastroduodenoscopy and biopsy. J Infect Dis 1990;161:507–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105.van der Hulst, RWM, Koycu, B, Keller, JJ, Feller, M, Rauws, EAJ, Dankert, J, et al. H. pylori reinfection after successful eradication analyzed by RAPD or RFLP. Gastroenterology 1996;110:A284. Abstract.Google Scholar
106.Figura, N. Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and Helicobacter pylori infection. Lancet 1996;347:1342.Google Scholar
107.Chong, J, Marshall, BJ, Barkin, JS, McCallum, RW, Reiner, DK, Hoffman, SR, et al. Occupational exposure to Helicobacter pylori for the endoscopy professional: a sera epidemiological study. Am J Gastroenterology 1994;89:1987–1992.Google Scholar
108.Nabwera, HM, Logan, RP. Epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori: transmission, translocation and extragastric reservoirs. J Physiol Pharmacol 1999;50:711–722.Google Scholar
109.Cellini, L, Allocati, N, Angelucci, D, Iezzi, T, Di Campli, E, Marzio, L, et al. Coccoid Helicobacter pylori not culturable in vitro reverts in mice. Microbiol Immunol 1994;38:843–850.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110.West, AP, Millar, MR, Tompkins, DS. Effect of physical environment on survival of Helicobacter pylori. J Clin Pathol 1992;45:228–231.Google Scholar
111.Shahamat, M, Mai, U, Paszko-Kolva, C, Kessel, M, Colwell, RR. Use of autoradiography to assess viability of Helicobacter pylori in water. Appl Environ Microbiol 1993;59:1231–1235.Google Scholar
112.Fan, XG, Chua, A, Li, TG, Zeng, OS. Survival of Helicobacter pylori in milk and tap water. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1998;13:1096–1098.Google Scholar
113.Hulten, K, Enroth, H, Nystrom, T, Engstrand, L. Presence of Helicobacter species DNA in Swedish water. J Appl Microbiol 1998;85:282–286.Google Scholar
114.Sasaki, K, Tajiri, Y, Sata, M, Fujii, Y, Matsubara, F, Zhao, M, et al. Helicobacter pylori in the natural environment. Scand J Infect Dis 1999;31:275–279.Google Scholar
115.Akamatsu, T, Tabata, K, Hironga, M, Kawakami, H, Uyeda, M. Transmission of Helicobacter pylori infection via flexible fiberoptic endoscopy. Am J Infect Control 1996;24:396–401.Google Scholar
116.Graham, DY, Osato, MS. Disinfection of biopsy forceps and culture of Helicobacter pylori from gastric mucosal biopsies. Am J Gastroenterol 1999;94:1422–1423.Google Scholar
117.Kaneko, H, Mitsuma, T, Kotera, H, Uchida, K, Furusawa, A, Morise, K. Are routine cleaning methods sufficient to remove Helicobacter pylori from endoscopic equipment? Endoscopy 1993;25:435.Google Scholar
118.Fantry, GT, Zheng, QX, James, SP. Conventional cleaning and disinfection techniques eliminate the risk of endoscopic transmission of Helicobacter pylori. Am J Gastroenterol 1995;90:227–232.Google Scholar
119.Cronmiller, JR, Nelson, DK, Jackson, DK, Kim, CH. Efficacy of conventional endoscopic disinfection and sterilization methods against Helicobacter pylori contamination. Helicobacter 1999;4:198–203.Google Scholar
120.Shimada, T, Terano, A, Ota, S, Takikawa, H, Sumino, S. Risk of iatrogenic transmission of Helicobacter pylori by gastroscopes. Lancet 1996;347:1342–1343.Google Scholar
121.Roosendaal, R, Kuipers, EJ, van den Brule, AJC, Pena, AS, Meuwissen, SGM, Walboomers, JMM, et al. Detection of Helicobacter pylori DNA by PCR in gastrointestinal equipment. Lancet 1993;341:900.Google Scholar
122.Johnson, CH, Rice, EW, Reasoner, DJ. Inactivation of Helicobacter pylori by chlorination. Appl Environ Microbiol 1997;63:4969–4970.Google Scholar
123.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for prevention and control of hepatitis C (HCV) infection and HCV-related chronic disease. MMWR 1998;47(RR-19):1–39.Google Scholar
124.Alter, MJ, Kruszon-Moran, D, Nainan, OV, McQuillan, GM, Gao, F, Moyer, LA, et al. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. N Engl J Med 1999;341:556–562.Google Scholar
125.Alter, MJ. Hepatitis C infection in the United States. J Hepatol 1999;31(suppl 1):88–91.Google Scholar
126.Fridey, JL. Hepatitis C and transfusions: “lookback” primer [CD-ROM, version 8]. Wellesley, MA: UpToDate; 2000.Google Scholar
127.Schreiber, GB, Busch, MP, Keinman, SH, Korelitz, JJ. The risk of transfusion-transmitted viral infections. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1685–1690.Google Scholar
128.Mauser-Bunschoten, EP, Bresters, D, van Drimmelen, AA, Roosendaal, G, Cuypers, HT, Reesink, HW, et al. Hepatitis C infection and viremia in Dutch hemophilia patients. J Med Virol 1995;45:241–246.Google Scholar
129.Bjoro, K, Froland, SS, Yun, Z, Samdal, HH, Haaland, T. Hepatitis C infection in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinemia after treatment with contaminated immune globulin. N Engl J Med 1994;331;1607–1611.Google Scholar
130.Quinti, I, Pandolfi, F, Paganelli, R, el Salman, D, Giovannetti, A, Rosso, R, et al. HCV infection in patients with primary defects of immunoglobulin production. Clin Exp Immunol 1995;102:11–16.Google Scholar
131.Bjoro, K, Shaug, K, Haaland, T, Froland, SS. Long-term outcome of chronic hepatitis C virus infection in primary hypogammaglobulinemia. QJM 1999;92:433–441.Google Scholar
132.Power, JP, Lawlor, E, Davidson, F, Holmes, EC, Yap, PL, Simmonds, P. Molecular epidemiology of an outbreak of infection with hepatitis C virus in recipients of anti-D immunoglobulin. Lancet 1995;345:1211–1213.Google Scholar
133.Kenny-Walsh, E. Clinical outcomes after hepatitis C infection from contaminated anti-D immune globulin. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1228–1233.Google Scholar
134.Guyer, B, Bradley, DW, Bryan, JA, Maynard, JE. Non-A, non-B hepatitis among recipients in a plasmapheresis stimulation program. J Infect Dis 1979;139:634–640.Google Scholar
135.Muss, N, Frosner, GG, Sandhofer, F. Epidemic outbreak of non-A, non-B hepatitis in a plasmapheresis center, I: epidemiological observations. Infection 1985;13:57–60.Google Scholar
136.Eggen, BM, Nordbo, SA. Transmission of HCV by organ transplantation. N Engl J Med 1992;326:411.Google Scholar
137.Cardo, DM, Bell, DM. Bloodborne pathogen transmission in health care workers. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1997;11:331–346.Google Scholar
138.Sanchez-Tapias, JM. Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Hepatol 1999;31(suppl 1):107–112.Google Scholar
139.Rosen, HR. Primer on hepatitis C for hospital epidemiologists. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:229–234.Google Scholar
140.Beltrami, EM, Williams, IT, Shapiro, CN, Chamberland, ME. Risk and management of blood-borne infections in health care workers. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000;13:385–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
141.Pereira, BJ, Levey, AS. Hepatitis C virus infection in dialysis and renal transplantation. Kidney Int 1997;51:981–999.Google Scholar
142.Moyer, LA, Alter, MJ. Hepatitis C virus in the hemodialysis setting: a review with recommendations for control. Semin Dial 1994;7:124–127.Google Scholar
143.Wreghitt, TG. Blood-borne virus infections in dialysis units—a review. Rev Med Virol 1999;9:101–109.Google Scholar
144.Tokars, JI, Miller, ER, Alter, MJ, Arduino, MJ. National surveillance of dialysis associated diseases in the United States, 1995. ASAIO J 1998;44:98–107.Google Scholar
145.Tokars, JI, Miller, ER, Alter, MJ, Arduino, MJ. National surveillance of dialysis-associated diseases in the United States, 1997. Semin Dial 2000;13:75–85.Google Scholar
146.Allander, T, Medin, C, Jacobson, SH, Grillner, L, Persson, MAA. Hepatitis C transmission in a hemodialysis unit: molecular evidence for spread of virus among patients not sharing equipment. J Med Virol 1994;43:415–419.Google Scholar
147.Le Pogam, S, le Chapois, D, Christen, R, Dubois, F, Barin, F, Goudeau, A. Hepatitis C in a hemodialysis unit: molecular evidence for nosocomial transmission. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:3040–3043.Google Scholar
148.Norder, H, Bergstrom, A, Uhnoo, I, Alden, J, Weiss, L, Czajkowski, J, et al. Confirmation of nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus by phylogenetic analysis of the NS5-B region. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:3066–3069.Google Scholar
149.Katsoulidou, A, Paraskevis, D, Kalapothaki, V, Arvanitis, D, Karayiannis, P, Hadjiconstantiou, V, et al. Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C virus outbreak in a haemodialysis unit. Nephrol, Dialy, Transplant 1999;14:1188–1194.Google Scholar
150.Izopet, J, Pasquier, C, Sandres, K, Puel, J, Rostaing, L. Molecular evidence for nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C in a French hemodialysis unit. J Med Virol 1999;58:139–144.Google Scholar
151.Abacioglu, YH, Bacaksiz, F, Bahar, IH, Simmonds, P. Molecular evidence of nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus in a haemodialysis unit. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000;19:182–186.Google Scholar
152.Grethe, S, Gemsa, F, Monazahian, M, Bohme, I, Uy, A, Thomssen, R. Molecular epidemiology of an outbreak of HCV in a hemodialysis unit direct sequencing of HCV-HVR1 as an appropriate tool of phylogenetic analysis. J Med Virol 2000;60:152–158.Google Scholar
153.Alfurayh, O, Sabeel, A, Al Ahdal, MN, Almeshari, K, Kessie, G, Hamid, M, et al. Hand contamination with hepatitis C virus in staff looking after hepatitis C-positive hemodialysis patients. Am J Nephrol 2000;20:103–106.Google Scholar
154.Bronowicki, J-P, Venard, V, Botte, C, Monhoven, N, Gastin, I, Chone, L, et al. Patient-to-patient transmission of hepatitis C virus during colonoscopy. N Engl J Med 1997;337:237–240.Google Scholar
155.Le Pogam, S, Gondeau, A, Bacq, Y. Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus. Ann Intern Med 1999;131:794.Google Scholar
156.Tennenbaum, R, Colardelle, P, Chochon, M, Maisonneuve, P, Jean, F, Andrieu, J. [Hepatitis C after retrograde cholangiography.] Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1993;17:763–764. French.Google Scholar
157.Widell, A, Christensson, B, Wiebe, T, Schalen, C, Hansson, HB, Allander, T, et al. Epidemiologic and molecular investigation of outbreaks of hepatitis C virus infection on a pediatric oncology service. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:130–134.Google Scholar
158.Sawayama, Y, Hayashi, J, Kakuda, K, Furusyo, N, Ariyama, I, Kawakami, Y, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in institutionalized psychiatric patients: possible role of transmission by razor sharing. Dig Dis Sci 2000;45:351–356.Google Scholar
159.Lesourd, F, Izopet, J, Mervan, C, Payen, JL, Sandres, K, Monrozies, X, et al. Transmission of hepatitis KC virus during the ancillary procedures for assisted conception. Hum Reprod 2000;15:1083–1085.Google Scholar
160.Schvarcz, R, Johansson, B, Nystrom, B, Sonnerborg, A. Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus. Infection 1997;25:74–77.Google Scholar
161.Chant, K, Kociuba, K, Munro, R, Crone, S, Kerridge, R, Quin, J, et al. Investigation of possible patient-to-patient transmission of hepatitis C in a hospital. New South Wales Public Health Bulletin 1994;5:47–51.Google Scholar
162.Knoblanche, GK. Revision of the anaesthetic aspects of an infection control policy following reporting of hepatitis C nosocomial infection. Anaesth Intensive Care 1996;24:169–172.Google Scholar
163.Greene, ES. Hepatitis C nosocomial infection. Anaesth Intensive Care 1997;25:86–87.Google Scholar
164.Knoblanche, G. Infection control: A reply to Prof. E. S. Greene. Anaesth Intensive Care 1997;25:87.Google Scholar
165.Lloyd, G, Howells, J, Liddle, C, Klineberg, PL. Barriers to hepatitis C transmission within breathing systems: efficacy of a pleated hydrophobic filter. Anaesth Intensive Care 1997;25:235–238.Google Scholar
166.Cooper, BW, Krusell, A, Tilton, RC, Goodwin, R, Levitz, RE. Seroprevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in high-risk personnel. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:82–85.Google Scholar
167.Thomas, DL, Factor, SH, Kelen, GC, Washington, AS, Taylor, E, Quinn, TC. Viral hepatitis in health care personnel at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Arch Intern Med 1993;153:1705–1712.Google Scholar
168.Panlilio, AL, Shapiro, CN, Schable, CA, Mendelson, MH, Montecalvo, MA, Kunches, LM, et al. Serosurvey of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infection among hospital-based surgeons. Serosurvey Study Group. J Am Coll Surg 1995;180:16–24.Google Scholar
169.Shapiro, CN, Tokars, JI, Chamberland, ME. Use of the hepatitis-B vaccine and infection with hepatitis B and C among orthopaedic surgeons. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Serosurvey Study Committee. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1996;78:1791–1800.Google Scholar
170.Thomas, DL, Gruninger, SE, Siew, C, Joy, ED, Quinn, TC. Occupational risk of hepatitis C infections among general dentists and oral surgeons in North America. Am J Med 1996;100:41–45.Google Scholar
171.Mitsui, T, Iwano, K, Masuko, K, Yamazaki, C, Okamoto, H, Tsuda, F, et al. Hepatitis C infection in medical personnel after needlestick injury. Hepatology 1992;16:1109–1114.Google Scholar
172.Satori, M, La Terra, G, Aglietta, M, Manzin, A, Navino, C, Verzetti, G. Transmission of hepatitis C via blood splash into conjunctiva. Scand J Infect Dis 1993;25:270–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
173.Ippolito, G, Puro, V, Petrosillo, N, De Carli, G, Micheloni, G, Magliano, E. Simultaneous infection with HIV and hepatitis C virus following occupational conjunctival blood exposure. JAMA 1998;280:28–29.Google Scholar
174.Hepatitis C virus transmission from health care worker to patient. Commun Dis Rep CDR Weekly 1995;5:121.Google Scholar
175.Esteban, JI, Gomez, J, Martell, M, Cabot, B, Quer, J, Camps, J, et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus by a cardiac surgeon. N Engl J Med 1996;334:555–560.Google Scholar
176.Transmission of hepatitis C virus from surgeon to patient prompts look-back. Commun Dis Rep CDR Weekly 1999;9:387.Google Scholar
177.Bond, WW, Favero, MS, Petersen, NJ, Gravelle, CR, Ebert, JW, Maynard, JE. Survival of hepatitis B virus after drying and storage for one week. Lancet 1981;1:550–551.Google Scholar
178.Cuypers, HT, Bresters, D, Winkel, IN, Reesink, HW, Weiner, AJ, Houghton, M, et al. Storage conditions of blood samples and primer selection affect the yield of cDNA polymerase chain reaction products of hepatitis C virus. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:3220–3224.Google Scholar
179.Sartor, C, Charrel, RN, de Lamballerie, X, Sambuc, R, de Micco, P, Boubli, L. Evaluation of a disinfection procedure for hysteroscopes contaminated by hepatitis C virus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:434–436.Google Scholar
180.Rey, JF, Halfon, P, Feryn, JM, Khiri, H, Masseyeff, MF, Ouzan, D. Risk of transmission of hepatitis C virus by digestive endoscopy. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1995;19:346–349.Google Scholar
181.Chanzy, B, Due-Bin, DL, Rousset, B, Morand, P, Morel-Baccard, C, Marchetti, B, et al. Effectiveness of a manual disinfection procedure in eliminating hepatitis C virus from experimentally contaminated endoscopes. Gastrointest Endoscopy 1999;50:147–151.Google Scholar
182.Ouzan, D. [Risk of transmission of hepatitis C through endoscopy of the digestive tract] Presse Med 1999;28:1091–1094. French.Google Scholar