A recent paper published in Psychological Medicine reported results from a 7.5-year follow-up of subjects at age 19 years who took part in a community-based intervention known as PROSPER (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017). The study examined the effects on substance misuse and associated risk behaviors of participation in a family-based program delivered in 6th grade (Strengthening Families Program 10–14; SFP 10–14) combined with one of three 7th grade school-based programs (All Stars, Life Skills Training or Project ALERT). Although much of the discussion in the paper focused on PROSPER as a delivery system, claims were also made concerning the ‘positive intervention effects’ of the programs tested (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017, p. 8). The findings of the study were said to ‘indicate the potential benefits of developmentally well-timed interventions in early adolescence for substance-related outcomes during emerging adulthood’ (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017, p. 10). Such claims of intervention effectiveness are problematic for at least three reasons: the potential for selection bias in the sample used in the study; the low rate of participation in the SFP 10–14; and the possibility that the positive results reported were the result of flexible data analysis and selective reporting.

The data analysis used in the PROSPER study includes all subjects in the intervention condition who provided data at follow-up, irrespective of whether or not they participated in the SFP 10–14 in 6th grade or the school-based program in 7th grade. However, unlike earlier follow-up assessments, the 7.5-year follow-up did not attempt to contact the entire sample, but randomly selected from among subjects who completed the 6th grade baseline assessment and were still enrolled in the same school district in 9th grade. Spoth et al. (Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017) present data from 1985 subjects selected from this group (1004 in the intervention group and 981 in the control group). They fail, however, to report the number of eligible subjects contacted in order to generate this sample. Since 21% of subjects did not complete the 9th grade follow-up assessment and 28% did not complete the 10th grade asesssment (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Clair, Shin, Greenberg and Feinberg2011, Figure 1), it is unlikely there were no refusals when a random sample was drawn from these same subjects at the 7.5-year follow-up. In order to assess the potential for selection bias, one needs to know the number of subjects who refused to be re-assessed in each study condition. For the intervention condition, one also needs to know if there was differential refusal according to participation of subjects in the intervention programs.

It is unclear from Spoth et al. (Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017) whether any of the individuals who remained in the intervention condition at age 19 actually received the family-based program in 6th grade. A total of 5515 intervention group subjects were pretested in 6th grade and eligible for participation in the SFP 10–14 component of the intervention (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017). Of these, just 1064 (19%) attended at least one of the seven SFP 10–14 sessions (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Clair, Shin, Greenberg and Feinberg2011). This very low participation creates the possibility that few if any of the 1004 intervention group subjects assessed at 7.5 years actually participated in the program. At one extreme, it is possible that the random sample of 1004 subjects assessed at age 19 was drawn exclusively from the 1064 subjects in the intervention group who took part in the SFP 10–14 in 6th grade. At the other extreme, it is possible these 1004 subjects all came from the 4451 who did not participate in the program. If the sample is truly random (and assuming no differential attrition related to SFP 10–14 participation), one would expect about 191 (19%) of the 1004 subjects assessed at 7.5 years to have participated in the program in 6th grade. One needs to know the exact number in order to assess the validity of Spoth et al's (2017) claim that the SFP 10–14 is an effective substance use prevention intervention.

It should be noted that while Spoth et al. (Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017) include a CONSORT-like flow diagram of subjects (detailing those eligible to take part in the study at its inception, those randomized to study conditions and those successfully followed-up), this does not strictly adhere to the CONSORT requirements that guide reporting of trials. Specifically, the CONSORT diagram should include ‘the numbers of participants who were randomly assigned, received intended treatment, and were analysed for the primary outcome’ flowing through the trial at each assessment point (Schulz et al. Reference Schulz, Altman and Moher2010, emphasis added).

The final reason that caution should be used in claiming that the PROSPER interventions are effective is that the results reported could simply be the result of running multiple analyses and selective reporting. Spoth and colleagues claim that their results clearly show ‘the pattern of statistically significant PROSPER intervention effects on primary substance use outcomes, previously found through the 12th grade, was still evident at age 19’ (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017, p. 8). However, as shown in Table 1, there was very little consistency in the variables reported at the 6.5-year (12th grade) follow-up and the 7.5-year (aged 19) follow-up, let alone any consistent pattern of statistically significant results. A total of 21 comparisons between PROSPER and control participants on substance use outcomes are reported in Spoth et al. (Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017), 11 of which showed statically significant differences between the study conditions using two-tailed tests of significance [note: the 6.5-year analysis reported in Spoth et al. (Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Schainker2013) used one-tailed tests of significance]. Eight of the 11 statistically significant differences pertain to lifetime use of illicit and non-prescribed substances. None of these lifetime measures were included in the 6.5-year follow-up (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Schainker2013). Only one of the three other variables (frequency of marijuana use) for which a statistically significant difference was found at the 7.5-year follow-up was included in the 6.5-year analysis. There are five other variables common to each analysis, and none of the differences in scores on these between the PROSPER and control groups were statistically significant using two-tailed tests. Thus the ‘pattern’ of statistically significant effects Spoth et al. (Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017) claim exist is simply not present.

Table 1. Statistical significance of outcomes reported at the 6.5-year and 7.5-year follow-ups in the PROSPER evaluation ^a

^a ✓ = Statistically significant at p < 0.05 using a two-tailed test of statistical significance; ✗ = Not statistically significant at p < 0.05 using a two-tailed test of statistical significance; * = Statistically significant at p < 0.05 using a one-tailed test of statistical significance (Spoth et al. Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Schainker2013 used 1-taled tests).

^b Ever used: (a) methamphetamines, (b) ecstasy, (c) LSD (or other hallucinogens), (d) cocaine, and (e) GHB or Rohypnol.

^c Ever used: (a) methamphetamines, (b) ecstasy, (c) marijuana, (d) drugs prescribed by a doctor for someone else, and (e) Vicodin, Percocet or Oxycontin not prescribed by a doctor.

Table 1 also raises concerns that the results reported in the PROSPER study may be the product of outcome manipulation and analytic flexibility. Such practices are common in substance use prevention research (Holder, Reference Holder2010; Gorman, Reference Gorman2015) and their use increases the likelihood that a study will produce false discoveries (Ioannidis, Reference Ioannidis2005; Simmons et al. Reference Simmons, Nelson and Simonsohn2011). Their use is also evident in an earlier evaluation of the SFP 10–14 program (Gorman et al. Reference Gorman, Conde and Huber2007). In the PROSPER study, there is no obvious reason why lifetime use of substances, frequency of cigarette use and drug-related problems should be outcomes at the 7.5-year follow-up, but not the 6.5-year follow-up. Nor is there any obvious reason to include past year inhalant use and methamphetamine use as outcomes at the 6.5-year follow-up but not the 7.5-year follow-up. But perhaps the best indicator of the presence of analytic flexibility in the PROSPER study is the Illicit Substance Use Index that appears in both the 6.5-year and 7.5-year follow-ups. Each index is comprised of five substances, but only two substances are common to both indexes (methamphetamines and ecstasy). Thus, what appears at first sight to be a consistent effect across the two follow-ups, is not, and no reason is given for the change in the composition of the index.

Spoth et al. (Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017) advise readers of their paper to adjust the significance levels they present based on the number of statistical tests reported (although they refrain from conducting any such adjusted analysis themselves). The data presented in Table 1 suggests that the 21 substance use tests presented in the paper may not have been the only ones conducted in the analyses. A published document that prespecified the exact analyses to be conducted and the precise outcomes to be included in the 7.5-year follow-up would dispel any such concerns. In the absence of this, one has no way of knowing if the results presented by Spoth et al. (Reference Spoth, Redmond, Shin, Greenberg, Feinberg and Trudeau2017) are false discoveries that arise through analytic flexibility, outcome manipulation and multiple comparisons. It is worth noting that two recent evaluations of the SFP 10–14 that did prespecify their outcomes and analyses plans in a clinical trials registry and published protocol both produced null results (Baldus et al. Reference Baldus, Thomsen, Sack, Bröning, Arnaud, Daubmann and Thomasius2016; Foxcroft et al. Reference Foxcroft, Callen, Davies and Okulicz-Kozaryn2017).