Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-zzw9c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-18T12:00:08.907Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Untouched Antarctica: mapping a finite and diminishing environmental resource

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 May 2011

Kevin A. Hughes ,
Peter Fretwell ,
Joanna Rae ,
Keith Holmes  and
Andrew Fleming
Kevin A. Hughes*
Affiliation:
British Antarctic Survey, NERC, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK
Peter Fretwell
Affiliation:
British Antarctic Survey, NERC, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK
Joanna Rae
Affiliation:
British Antarctic Survey, NERC, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK
Keith Holmes
Affiliation:
3 Capel Close, Oxford OX2 7LA, UK
Andrew Fleming
Affiliation:
British Antarctic Survey, NERC, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK
*
kehu@bas.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Globally, areas categorically known to be free of human visitation are rare, but still exist in Antarctica. Such areas may be among the most pristine locations remaining on Earth and, therefore, be valuable as baselines for future comparisons with localities impacted by human activities, and as sites preserved for scientific research using increasingly sophisticated future technologies. Nevertheless, unvisited areas are becoming increasingly rare as the human footprint expands in Antarctica. Therefore, an understanding of historical and contemporary levels of visitation at locations across Antarctica is essential to a) estimate likely cumulative environmental impact, b) identify regions that may have been impacted by non-native species introductions, and c) inform the future designation of protected areas under the Antarctic Treaty System. Currently, records of Antarctic tourist visits exist, but little detailed information is readily available on the spatial and temporal distribution of national governmental programme activities in Antarctica. Here we describe methods to fulfil this need. Using information within field reports and archive and science databases pertaining to the activities of the United Kingdom as an illustration, we describe the history and trends in its operational footprint in the Antarctic Peninsula since c. 1944. Based on this illustration, we suggest that these methodologies could be applied productively more generally.

Keywords

cumulative environmental impactfootprintinviolatenational Antarctic programmepristineprotected areas

Information

Type
Biological Sciences
Information
Antarctic Science , Volume 23 , Issue 6 , 22 November 2011 , pp. 537 - 548
Copyright
Copyright © Antarctic Science Ltd 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

ASOC (AntarcticandSouthernOceanCoalition). 2004. Environmental reports of Fildes Peninsula, 1988–1997: benchmarks for environmental management. Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition report, December 2004, 15 pp. Available at: http://www.asoc.org/Portals/0/ASOC%20Fildes%20Peninsula%20inspections%20review%202004.pdf.Google Scholar
ATCP (Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties). 1991. Protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty. CM 1960. London: HMSO, 38 pp.Google Scholar
Baker, G.C., Tow, L.A.Cowan, D.A. 2003. PCR-based detection of non-indigenous microorganisms in ‘pristine’ environments. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 53, 157–164.Google Scholar
Bargagli, R. 2005. Antarctic ecosystems: environmental contamination, climate change and human impact. Berlin: Springer, 395 pp.Google Scholar
Blanchette, R.A., Held, B.W., Jurgens, J.A., Aislabie, J., Duncan, S.Farrell, R.L. 2004. Environmental pollutants from the Scott and Shackleton expeditions during the ‘Heroic Age’ of Antarctic exploration. Polar Record, 40, 143–151.Google Scholar
Braun, C., Mustafa, O., Nordt, A., Pfeiffer, S.Peter, H.-U. In press. Environmental monitoring and management proposals for the Fildes Region (King George Island, Antarctica). Polar Research.Google Scholar
Broady, P.A.Smith, R.A. 1994. A preliminary investigation of the diversity, survivability and dispersal of algae introduced into Antarctica by human activity. Proceedings of the NIPR Symposium on Polar Biology, 7, 185–197.Google Scholar
Cameron, R.E. 1972. Pollution and conservation of the Antarctic terrestrial ecosystem. In Parker, B.C., ed. Proceedings of the colloquium on conservation problems in Antarctica. Lawrence, KS: Allen Press, 267–308.Google Scholar
Campbell, I.B., Claridge, G.G.C.Balks, M.R. 1998. Short and long-term impacts of human disturbance on snow-free surfaces in Antarctica. Polar Record, 34, 15–24.Google Scholar
Chen, J.Blume, H.-P. 1997. Impact of human activities on the terrestrial ecosystem of Antarctica: a review. Polarforschung, 65, 83–92.Google Scholar
Chown, S.L.Convey, P. 2007. Spatial and temporal variation across life's hierarchies in the terrestrial Antarctic. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B362, 2307–2331.Google Scholar
COMNAP (CouncilOfManagersOfNationalAntarcticPrograms). 2010. Antarctic facilities. www.comnap.aq/facilities. Accessed 10 December 2010.Google Scholar
Conlan, K.E., Kim, S.L., Lenihan, H.S.Olivers, J.S. 2004. Benthic changes during 10 years of organic enrichment by McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49, 43–60.Google Scholar
Fox, A.J.Cooper, A.P.R. 1998. Climate-change indicators from archival aerial photography of the Antarctic Peninsula. Annals in Glaciology, 27, 636–642.Google Scholar
France. 2008. A mechanism for centralizing tourism and non-governmental activity declarations and authorization requests suitable for taking cumulative impacts into account. Working Paper 034 for XXXI Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Committee for Environmental Protection. Kiev, Ukraine, 2–13 June 2008.Google Scholar
Frenot, Y., Chown, S.L., Whinam, J., Selkirk, P.M., Convey, P., Skotnicki, M.Bergstrom, D.M. 2005. Biological invasions in the Antarctic: extent, impacts and implications. Biological Reviews, 80, 45–72.Google Scholar
Fretwell, P.T., Convey, P., Fleming, A.H., Peat, H.J.Hughes, K.A. 2010. Detecting and mapping vegetation distribution on the Antarctic Peninsula from remote sensing data. Polar Biology, 34, 273–281.Google Scholar
Headland, R. 2009. A chronology of Antarctic exploration. London: Quaritch, 722 pp.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A. 2003. Aerial dispersal and survival of sewage-derived faecal coliforms in Antarctica. Atmospheric Environment, 37, 3147–3155.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A. 2004. Reducing sewage pollution in the Antarctic marine environment using a sewage treatment plant. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49, 850–853.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A. 2010. How committed are we to monitoring human impacts in Antarctica? Environmental Research Letters, 5, 041001.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A.Blenkharn, N. 2003. A simple method to reduce discharge of sewage microorganisms from an Antarctic research station. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46, 353–357.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A.Convey, P. 2010. The protection of Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems from inter- and intra-continental transfer of non-indigenous species by human activities: a review of current systems and practices. Global Environmental Change, 20, 96–112.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A.Nobbs, S. 2004. Long-term survival of human faecal microorganisms on the Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctic Science, 16, 293–297.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A.Worland, M.R. 2010. Spatial distribution, habitat preference and colonisation status of two alien terrestrial invertebrate species in Antarctica. Antarctic Science, 22, 221–231.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A., Convey, P., Maslen, N.R.Smith, R.I.L. 2010. Accidental transfer of non-native soil organisms into Antarctica on construction vehicles. Biological Invasions, 12, 875–891.Google Scholar
IAATO (International Association Of Antarctica Tour Operators). 2010. Tourism statistics. http://www.iaato.org/tourism_stats.html. Accessed 10 December 2010.Google Scholar
Jabour, J. 2009. National Antarctic programs and their impact on the environment. In Kerry, K.R. & Riddle, M.J., eds. Health of Antarctic wildlife – a challenge for science and policy. Heidelberg: Springer, 211–229.Google Scholar
Kennicutt, M.C., Klein, A., Montagna, P., Sweet, S., Wade, T., Palmer, T., Sericano, J.Denoux, G. 2010. Temporal and spatial patterns of anthropogenic disturbance at McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Environmental Research Letters, 5, 034010.Google Scholar
Lee, J.E.Chown, S.L. 2009a. Quantifying the propagule load associated with the construction of an Antarctic research station. Antarctic Science, 21, 471–475.Google Scholar
Lee, J.E.Chown, S.L. 2009b. Breaching the dispersal barrier to invasion: quantification and management. Ecological Applications, 7, 1944–1959.Google Scholar
Lee, J.E.Hughes, K.A. 2010. Guest editorial: focused tourism needs focused monitoring. Antarctic Science, 22, 1.Google Scholar
Lewis Smith, R.I. 1994. Environmental-geographic basis for the protected area system. In Lewis Smith, R.I., Walton, D.W.H. & Dingwall, P.R., eds. Developing the Antarctic protected area system. Cambridge: IUCN, 27–36.Google Scholar
Lynch, H.J., Crosbie, K., Fagan, W.F.Naveen, R. 2010. Spatial patterns of tour ship traffic in the Antarctic Peninsula region. Antarctic Science, 22, 123–130.Google Scholar
Mellars, P. 2006. Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60 000 years ago? A new model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 103, 9381–9386.Google Scholar
Meyer, G.H., Morrow, M.B.Wyss, O. 1963. Viable organisms from faeces and foodstuffs from early Antarctic expeditions. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 9, 163–167.Google Scholar
Morgan, F., Barker, G., Briggs, C., Price, R.Keys, H. 2007. Environmental domains of Antarctica. Version 2.0. Final report. Landcare Research Contract Report LC0708/055. Lincoln: Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd, 89 pp.Google Scholar
Nedwell, D.B., Russell, N.J.Cresswell-Maynard, T. 1994. Longterm survival of microorganisms in frozen material from early Antarctic base camps at McMurdo Sound. Antarctic Science, 6, 67–68.Google Scholar
Njastad, B., ed. 1998. Report of the Antarctic Protected Areas workshop 23 May, 1998, Tromso, Norway. Tromso: Norsk Polarinstitutt, 87 pp.Google Scholar
Santos, I.R., Silva, E.V., Schaefer, C.E.G.R., Alburquerque, M.R.Campos, L.S. 2005. Heavy metal contamination in coastal sediments and soils near the Brazilian Antarctic Station, King George Island. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50, 185–194.Google Scholar
Sheppard, D.S., Claridge, G.G.C.Campbell, I.B. 2000. Metal contamination of soils at Scott Base, Antarctica. Applied Geochemistry, 15, 513–530.Google Scholar
Sjoling, S.Cowan, D.A. 2000. Detecting human bacterial contamination in Antarctic soils. Polar Biology, 23, 644–650.Google Scholar
Smith, J.J.Riddle, M.J. 2009. Sewage disposal and wildlife health in Antarctica. In Kerry, K.R. & Riddle, M.J., eds. Health of Antarctic wildlife - a challenge for science and policy. Heidelberg: Springer, 271–315.Google Scholar
Tejedo, P., Justel, A., Benayas, J., Rico, E., Convey, P.Quesada, A. 2009. Soil trampling in an Antarctic Specially Protected Area: tools to assess levels of human impact. Antarctic Science, 21, 229–236.Google Scholar
Tin, T., Fleming, Z.L., Hughes, K.A., Ainley, D.G., Convey, P., Moreno, C.A., Pfeiffer, S., Scott, J.Snape, I. 2009. Impacts of local human activities on the Antarctic environment. Antarctic Science, 21, 3–33.Google Scholar
United States. 2003. Final report from the intersessional contact group on cumulative environmental impacts. Working Paper 006 for XXVI Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Committee for Environmental Protection. Madrid, Spain, 9–20 June 2003.Google Scholar
Whinam, J., Chilcott, N.Bergstrom, D.M. 2005. Subantarctic hitchhikers: expeditioners as vectors for the introduction of alien organisms. Biological Conservation, 121, 207–219.Google Scholar
Wilkness, P. 1990. Fuel spill clean up in the Antarctic. Antarctic Journal of the United States, 25(4), 3–8.Google Scholar
Walton, K.Atkinson, R. 1996. Of dogs and men: fifty years in the Antarctic - the illustrated story of the dogs of the British Antarctic Survey 1944-1994. Malvern Wells: Images Publishing (Malvern) Ltd, 190 pp.Google Scholar