Categorical Models of Personality Disorders

doi:10.1017/9781108333931.024

6 - Categorical Models of Personality Disorders

from Part II - Models

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 February 2020

Igor Weinberg

Edited by

Carl W. Lejuez and

Kim L. Gratz

Show author details

Carl W. Lejuez: Affiliation:
University of Kansas
Kim L. Gratz: Affiliation:
University of Toledo, Ohio

Book contents

Get access

Summary

This chapter reviews and summaries current knowledge about the categorical model of personality disorders. It starts with the history of the concept from Greek philosophers and moves to the description of personality disorders in DSM-5. It then summarizes key strengths of the categorical approach. First, it provides examples of the disorder-specific concepts that help understand in depth individuals with individual disorders. Second, it reviews research findings that validate the association between personality disorders and functional impairment. Third, construct validity of each personality disorder is reviewed based on the criteria of validation of psychiatric disorders. Ability to test construct validity of each disorder is a unique feature of the categorical model. Fourth, the predictive utility of the categorical model documents that the categorical diagnosis of personality disorder predicts significant clinical and psychosocial outcomes and predicts some functional outcomes independent of the dimensional model. Fifth, clinical utility research on categorical model and its limitations is reviewed. Sixth, the chapter reviews limitations of the categorical model, such as (i) excessive diagnostic co-occurrence, (ii) phenomenological heterogeneity, (iii) arbitrary diagnostic thresholds, and (iv) inadequate coverage. The chapter offers possible resolutions to these limitations. The chapter concludes with discussion of possible future directions, including combining categorical and dimensional approaches.

Keywords

personality disorders categorical model critical review taxonomy validation of psychiatric disorders

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders , pp. 120 - 135

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108333931.024 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abel, K., Jolley, S., Hemsley, D., & Geyer, M. (2004). The influence of schizotypy traits on prepulse inhibition in young healthy controls. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 18, 181–188.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Aboraya, A., France, C., Young, J., Curci, K., & Lepage, J. (2005). The validity of the psychiatric diagnosis revisited. Psychiatry, 2, 48–55.Google Scholar

Abraham, K. (1927). Selected Papers of Karl Abraham. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar

Akhtar, S. (1992). Broken Structures: Severe Personality Disorders and Their Treatment. New York: Aronson.Google Scholar

Baskin-Sommers, A., Kruzermark, E., & Ronningstam, E. F. (2014). Empathy in narcissistic personality disorder: From clinical and empirical perspectives. Personality Disorders, 5, 323–333.Google Scholar

Beck, A. T., Freeman, A., Davis, D. D., & Associates (2006). Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Bernstein, D. P., Iscan, C., Maser, J., & Board of Directors of the Association for Research of Personality Disorders, International Society for Study of Personality Disorders (2007). Opinions of personality disorder experts regarding the DSM-IV personality disorders classification system. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 536–551.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bertsch, K., Schmidingerm, I., Neuman, I. D., & Herpertz, S. C. (2013). Reduced plasma cortisol levels in female patients with borderline personality disorder. Hormones and Behavior, 63, 424–429.Google Scholar

Black, D. W. (2015). The natural history of antisocial personality disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 60, 309–314.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bodner, E., & Mikulincer, M. (1998). Learned helplessness and occurrence of depressive-like and paranoid-like responses: The role of attentional focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1019–1023.Google Scholar

Bornstein, R. F. (1993). The Dependent Personality. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Bornstein, R. F. (1998). Reconceptualizing personality disorder diagnosis in the DSM-V: The discriminant validity challenge. Clinical Psychology, 5, 333–343.Google Scholar

Bornstein, R. F., Ng, H. M., Gallagher, H. R., Kloss, D. M., & Regier, N. G. (2005). Contrasting effects of self-schema priming on lexical decisions and interpersonal Stroop task performance: Evidence for a cognitive/interactionist model of interpersonal dependency. Journal of Personality, 73, 731–761.Google Scholar

Chanen, A. M., Jackson, H. J., McGorry, P. D., Allot, K. A., Clarkson, V., & Yuen, H. P. (2004). Two-year stability of personality disorders in older adolescent outpatients. Journal of Personality Disorders, 18, 526–541.Google Scholar

Chemerinski, E., Triebwasser, J., Roussos, P., & Siever, L. J. (2013). Schizotypal personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 27, 652–679.Google Scholar

Chen, H., Cohen, P., Crawford, T. N., Kasen, S., & Johnson, J. G. (2006). Relative impact of young adult personality disorders on subsequent quality of life: Findings of a community-based longitudinal study. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 510–523.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cloninger, C. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Przybeck, T. R. (1993). A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 975–990.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1985). The NEO Personality Inventory Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar

Costa, P. T., & Widiger, T. (Eds.) (1993). Personality Disorders and the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar

Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P., First, M. B., Skodol, A. E., Johnson, J. G., & Kasen, S. (2008). Comorbid Axis I and Axis II disorders in early adolescence: Outcomes 20 years later. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 641–648.Google Scholar

Crego, C., Sleep, C. E., & Widiger, T. A. (2016). Clinicians’ judgments of the clinical utility of personality disorder trait descriptions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 204, 49–56.Google Scholar

Croft, R., Lee, A., Bertolot, J., & Gruzelier, J. (2001). Association of P50 suppression and desensitization with perceptual and cognitive features of “unreality” in schizotypy. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 441–446.Google Scholar

Diedrich, A., & Voderholzer, U. (2015). Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: A current review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17, 1–10.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Edens, J. F., Marcus, D. K., & Morey, L. C. (2009). Paranoid personality has a dimensional latent structure: Taxometric analyses of community and clinical samples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 545–553.CrossRef Google Scholar

Edens, J. F., Marcus, D. K., & Ruiz, M. A. (2008). Taxometric analyses of borderline personality features in a large-scale male and female offender sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 705–711.Google Scholar

Everett, K. V., & Linscott, R. J. (2015). Dimensionality vs. taxonicity of schizotypy: Some new data and challenges ahead. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41(Suppl. 2), S465–S474.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of Personality. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar

Fenton, W., & McGlashan, T. (1989). Risk of schizophrenia in character disorder patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1280–1284.Google Scholar

Ferenczi, S. (1938). Thalassa: A Theory of Genitality. New York: Norton.Google Scholar

Ficks, C. A., & Waldman, I. D. (2014). Candidate genes for aggression and antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of association studies of the 5HTTLPR and MAOA-uVNTR. Behavioral Genetics, 44, 427–444.Google Scholar

First, M. B., Pincus, H. A., Levine, J. B., Williams, J. B. W., Ustun, B., & Peele, R. (2004). Clinical utility as a criterion for revisiting psychiatric diagnoses. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 946–954.Google Scholar

Freud, S. (1908). Character and anal erotism. In Collected Papers (Vol. 2). London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar

Gjerde, L. C., Czajkowski, N., Røysamb, E., Ørstavik, R. E., Knudsen, G. P., Østby, K., … Reichborn-Kjennerud, T. (2012). The heritability of avoidant and dependent personality disorder assessed by personal interview and questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 126, 448–457.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Grant, B. F., Chou, S. P., Goldstein, R. B., Huang, B., Stinson, F. S., Saha, T. D., … Ruan, W. J. (2008). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV borderline personality disorder: Results from the wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 533–545.Google Scholar

Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., Chou, S. P., Ruan, W. J., & Pickering, R. P. (2004). Prevalence, correlates, and disability of personality disorders in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 948–958.Google Scholar

Grant, B. F., Moore, T. C., Shepard, J., & Kaplan, K. (2003). Source and Accuracy Statement: Wave 1 National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.Google Scholar

Gunderson, J. G. (1984). Borderline Personality Disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar

Gunderson, J. G. (1992). Diagnostic controversies. In Tasman, A. & Riba, M. B. (Eds.), American Psychiatric Press Review of Psychiatry (Vol. 11, pp. 9–24). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar

Gunderson, J. G., Herpertz, S., Skodol, A. E., Torgersen, S., & Zanarini, M. C. (2017). Borderline personality disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 4, 1–20.Google Scholar

Gunderson, J. G., & Ronningstam, E. F. (2001). Differentiating antisocial and narcissistic personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15, 103–109.Google Scholar

Gunderson, J. G., Stout, R. L., McGlashan, T. H., Shea, M. T., Morey, L. C., Grilo, C. M., … Skodol, A. E. (2011). Ten-year course of borderline personality disorder: Psychopathology and function from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 827–837.CrossRef Google Scholar

Gunderson, J. G., Weinberg, I., & Choi-Kain, L. (2013). Borderline personality disorder. In Gabbard, G. O. (Ed.), Gabbard’s Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders (DSM-5 ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Guntrip, H. (1968). Schizoid Phenomena, Object Relations, and the Self. London: Karnac.Google Scholar

Hirt, E. (1902). Die temperamente. Leipzig: Barth.Google Scholar

Holt, R. R. (1970). Yet another look at clinical and statistical prediction: Or, is clinical psychology worthwhile? American Psychologist, 25, 337–349.Google Scholar

Hong, J. P., Samuels, J., Bienvenu, O. J., Hsu, F. C., Eaton, W. W., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (2005). The longitudinal relationship between personality disorder dimensions and global functioning in a community-residing population. Psychological Medicine, 35, 891–895.Google Scholar

Horney, K. (1937). The Neurotic Personality of Our Time. New York: Norton.Google Scholar

Horwitz, M. J. & Lerner, U. (2010). Treatment of histrionic personality disorder. In Clarkin, J. F., Fonagy, P., & Gabbard, G. (Eds.), Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Personality Disorders (pp. 289–310). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Johnson, J. G., First, M. B., Cohen, P., Skodol, A. E., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2005). Adverse outcomes associated with personality disorders not otherwise specified in a community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1926–1932.Google Scholar

Kernberg, O. F. (1975). Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism. New York: Jason Aronson.Google Scholar

Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., … Kendler, K. S. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.Google Scholar

Klein, M. H. (1948). Contributions to Psychoanalysis, 1921–1945. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar

Koenigsberg, H. W., Denny, B. T., Fan, J., Liu, X., Guerreri, S., Mayson, S. J., … Siever, L. J. (2014). The neural correlates of anomalous habituation to negative emotional pictures in borderline and avoidant personality disorder patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 82–90.Google Scholar

Kohut, H. (1971). The Analysis of the Self. New York: International Universities Press.Google Scholar

Kraepelin, E. (1919). Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia. Edinburgh: Livingstone.Google Scholar

Kretchmer, E. (1925). Korperbau und character. Berlin: Springer Verlag.Google Scholar

Lenzenweger, M. F., Lane, M. C., Loranger, A. W., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. British Journal of Psychiatry, 62, 533–564.Google Scholar

Lilienfield, S. O., Waldman, I. D., & Israel, A. C. (1994). A critical examination of the issue of the term “comorbidity” in psychopathology research. Clinical Psychology, 1, 71–83.Google Scholar

Links, P. S. (1993). Psychiatric rehabilitation model for borderline personality disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 38(Suppl. 1), S35–S38.Google Scholar

Liu, H., Liao, J., Jiang, W., & Wang, W. (2014). Changes in low-frequency fluctuations in patients with antisocial personality disorder revealed by resting-state functional MRI. PLoS ONE, 9, e89790.Google Scholar

Livesley, W. J., West, M., & Tanney, A. (1986). Historical comment on DSM-III schizoid and avoidant personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1344–1346.Google Scholar

Ma, G., Fan, H., Shen, C., & Wang, W. (2016). Genetic and neuroimaging features of personality disorders: State of the art. Neuroscience Bulletin, 32, 286–306.Google Scholar

Martín-Blanco, A., Ferrer, M., Soler, J., Arranz, M. J., Vega, D., Calvo, N., … Pascual, J. C. (2015). The role of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal genes and childhood trauma in borderline personality disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 266, 307–316.Google Scholar

McGlashan, T. H., Grilo, C. M., Sanislow, C. A., Ralevski, E., Morey, L. C., Gunderson, J. G., … Pagano, M. (2005). Two-year prevalence and stability of individual DSM-IV criteria for schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: Toward a hybrid model of Axis II disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 883–889.Google Scholar

Meloy, J. R., & Yakeley, J. (2010). Psychodynamic treatment of antisocial personality disorder. In Clarkin, J. F., Fonagy, P., & Gabbard, G. (Eds.), Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Personality Disorders (pp. 311–336). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Minzenberg, M., Xu, K., & Mitrolopou, V. (2006). Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype variation is associated with prefrontal-dependent task performance in schizotypal personality disorder patients and comparison groups. Psychiatric Genetics, 16, 117–124.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Morey, L. C., Benson, K. T., Busch, A. J., & Skodol, A. E. (2015). Personality disorders in DSM-5: Emerging research on the alternative model. Current Psychiatric Reports, 17, 1–9.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Morey, L. C., Hopwood, C. J., Gunderson, J. G., Shea, M. T., Skodol, A. E., Grilo, C. M., … McGlashan, T. H. (2007). A comparison of personality disorder models. Psychological Medicine, 37, 983–994.CrossRef Google Scholar

Morey, L. C., Hopwood, C. J., Markowitz, J. C., Gunderson, J. G., Grilo, C. M., McGlashan, T. H., … Skodol, A. E. (2012). Comparisons of alternative models of personality disorders, II: 6-, 8-, and 10-year follow-up. Psychological Medicine, 42, 1705–1713.Google Scholar

Morey, L. C., & Skodol, A. E. (2013). Convergence between DSM-IV-TR and DSM-V diagnostic models for personality disorders: Evaluation of strategies for establishing diagnostic thresholds. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 19, 179–193.Google Scholar

Morey, L. C., Skodol, A. E., & Oldham, J. M. (2014). Clinician judgment of clinical utility: A comparison of DSM-IV-TR personality disorders and the alternative model for DSM-V personality disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123, 398–405.Google Scholar

Nestadt, G., Samuels, J. F., Bienvenu, O. J., Reti, I. M., Costa, P., Eaton, W. W., & Bandeen-Roche, K. (2010). The stability of the DSM personality disorders over ten to eighteen years. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44, 1–7.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., Kellman, H. D., Hyler, S. E., Rosnick, L., & Davies, M. (1992). Diagnosis of DSM-III-R personality disorders by two structured interviews: Patterns of comorbidity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 213–220.Google Scholar

Penner-Goeke, K., Henrikson, C. A., Chateau, D., Latimer, E., Sareen, J., & Katz, L. Y. (2015). Reduction in quality of life associated with common mental disorders: Results from a national representative sample. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76, 1506–1512.Google Scholar

Plakun, E. M. (1990). Narcissistic personality disorder: A validity study and comparison to borderline personality disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12, 603–620.Google Scholar

Pokorny, A. D. (1983). Prediction of suicide in psychiatric patients: Report of a prospective study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 249–257.Google Scholar

Pulay, A. J., Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., Goldstein, R. B., Chou, S. P., Huang, B., … Grant, B. F. (2009). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: Results from the wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions. Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 11, 53–67.CrossRef Google Scholar

Rappaport, D. (1961). The Collected Papers of David Rappaport. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar

Reich, W. (1933). Character Analysis. New York: Farrar & Rinehart.Google Scholar

Robins, E., & Guze, S. B. (1970). Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: Its application to schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 983–987.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ronningstam, E. (2011). Narcissistic personality disorder in DSM-V: In support of retaining a significant diagnosis. Journal of Personality Disorders, 25, 248–259.Google Scholar

Ronningstam, E. F. (2013). The update on narcissistic personality disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 26, 102–106.Google Scholar

Ronningstam, E. F., Gunderson, J. G., & Lyons, M. (1995). Changes in pathological narcissism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 253–257.Google Scholar

Rothschild, L., Cleland, C., Haslam, N., & Zimmerman, M. (2003). A taxometric study of borderline personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 657–666.Google Scholar

Rubovzki, G., Gunderson, J. G., & Weinberg, I. (2006). Patients’ acceptance and emotional reactions to disclosure of borderline personality disorder diagnosis. Paper presented at the APA Conference, Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar

Salekin, R. T. (2002). Psychopathy and therapeutic pessimism: Clinical lore or clinical reality? Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 79–112.Google Scholar

Sanislow, C. A., Grilo, C. M., Morey, L. C., Bender, D. S., Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., … McGlashan, T. H. (2002). Confirmatory factor analysis of DSM-IV criteria for borderline personality disorder: Findings from the collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 284–290.Google Scholar

Schneider, K. (1923). Psychopathic Personalities (9th ed.). London: Cassell.Google Scholar

Schulze, L., Dziobek, I., Vater, A., Heekeren, H. R., Bajbouj, M., Renneberg, B., … Roepke, S. (2013). Grey matter abnormalities in patients with narcissistic personality disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 47, 1363–1369.Google Scholar

Siever, L., Amin, F., Coccaro, E., Trestman, R. Silverman, J., & Hovath, T. (1996). Schizotypal personality disorder. In Widiger, T., Frances, A., & Pincus, H. (Eds.). DSM-IV Sourcebook (vol. 2, pp. 685–701). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

Siever, L. J., Coursey, R. D., Alterman, I. S., Zahn, T., Brody, L., Bernad, P., … Murphy, D. L. (1989). Clinical, psychophysiological, and neurological characteristics of volunteers with impaired smooth pursuit eye movements. Biological Psychiatry, 26, 35–51.Google Scholar

Siever, L. J., & Davis, K. L. (1991). A psychobiological perspective on the personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1647–1658.,Google Scholar

Skodol, A. E. (2018). Impact of personality pathology on psychosocial functioning. Current Opinion in Psychology, 21, 33–38.Google Scholar

Skodol, A. E., Bender, D. S., Gunderson, J. G., & Oldham, J. M. (2014). Personality disorders. In Hales, R. E., Yudofsky, S. C., & Roberts, L. (Eds.), American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry (6th ed., pp. 851–894). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., McGlashan, T. H., Dyck, I. R., Stout, R. L., Bender, D. S., … Oldham, J. M. (2002). Functional impairment in patients with schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 276–283.Google Scholar

Skodol, A. E., Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Sneed, J. R., & Crawford, T. N. (2007). Personality disorder and impaired functioning from adolescence to adulthood. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 415–420.Google Scholar

Skodol, A. E., Oldham, J. E., Bender, D. S, Dyck, I. R., Stout, R. L., Morey, L. C., … Gunderson, J. G. (2005). Dimensional representations of DSM-IV personality disorders: Relationship to functional impairment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1919–1925.Google Scholar

Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J., & Gibbons, M. (1979). Crossing the border into the borderline personality and borderline schizophrenia: The development of criteria. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 17–24.Google Scholar

Stefanis, N. C., Trikalinos, T. A., Avramopoulos, D., Smyrnis, N., Evdokimidis, I., Ntzani, E. E., … Stefanis, C. N. (2007). Impact of schizophrenia candidate genes on schizotypy and cognitive endophenotypes at the population level. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 784–792.Google Scholar

Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., Goldstein, R. B., Chou, S. P., Huang, B., Smith, S. M., … Grant, B. F. (2008). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV narcissistic personality disorder: Results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 1033–1045.Google Scholar

Stone, M. (1980). The Borderline Syndromes. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar

Stone, M. H. (2013). Paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid personality disorders. In Gabbard, G. O. (Ed.), Gabbard’s Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders (DSM-5 ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Svartberg, M., & McCullough, L. (2010). Cluster C personality disorders: Prevalence, phenomenology, treatment effects, and principles of treatment. In Clarkin, J. F., Fonagy, P., & Gabbard, G. (Eds.), Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Personality Disorders (pp. 337–368). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Torgersen, S., Lygren, S., Oien, P. A., Skre, I., Onstad, S., Edvardsen, J., … Kringlen, E. (2000). A twin study of personality disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41, 416–425.Google Scholar

Torgersen, S., Myers, J., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Roysamb, E., Kubarych, T. S., & Kendler, K. S. (2012). The heritability of Cluster B personality disorder assessed both by personal interview and questionnaire. Journal of Personality Disorders, 26, 848–866.Google Scholar

Trestman, R. L., Horvath, T., Kalus, O., Peterson, A. E., Coccaro, E., Mitropoulou, V., … Siever, L. J. (1996). Event-related potentials in schizotypal personality disorder. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 8, 33–40.Google Scholar PubMed

Triebwasser, J., Chemerinski, E., Roussos, P., & Siever, L.J. (2013). Paranoid personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 27, 795–805.Google Scholar

Trull, T. J., Jahng, S., Tomko, R. L., Wood, P. K. & Sher, K. J. (2010). Revised NESARC personality disorder diagnoses: Gender, prevalence, and comorbidity with substance use disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 24, 412–426.Google Scholar

Verheul, R., & Widiger, T. A. (2004). A meta-analysis of the prevalence and usage of the personality disorder not otherwise specified (PDNOS) diagnosis. Journal of Personality Disorders, 18, 309–319.Google Scholar

Weinbrecht, A., Schulze, L., Boetther, J., & Renneberg, B. (2013). Avoidant personality disorder. Current Psychiatric Reports, 18, 1–8.Google Scholar

Westen, D., & Arkowitz-Westen, L. (1998). Limitations of Axis II in diagnosing personality pathology in clinical practice. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1767–1771.Google Scholar

Widiger, T. A., & Mullins-Sweatt, S. N. (2005). Categorical and dimensional models of personality disorders. In Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Personality Disorders (pp. 35–53) Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Widiger, T. A., & Sanderson, C. J. (1995). Towards a dimensional model of personality disorders in DSM-IV and DSM-V. In Livesley, W. J. (Ed.), The DSM-IV Personality Disorders (pp. 380–394). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Wilberg, T., Hummelen, B., Pedersen, G., & Karterud, S. (2008). A study of patients with personality disorder not otherwise specified. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49, 460–468.Google Scholar

Williams, P. (2010). Psychotherapeutic treatment of Cluster A personality disorders. In Clarkin, J. F., Fonagy, P., & Gabbard, G. (Eds.), Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Personality Disorders (pp. 165–186). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Winnicott, D. W. (1965). The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment. New York: International Universities Press.Google Scholar

Yang, Y., & Raine, A. (2009). Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis. Psychiatric Research, 17, 81–88.Google Scholar

Young, J. E., Klosko, J. S., & Weishaar, M. E. (1993). Schema Therapy: A Practitioner’s Guide. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Zanarini, M. C., & Frankenburg, F. R. (2008). A preliminary, randomized trial of psychoeducation for women with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 284–290.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J. J., Reich, D. B., & Silk, K. R. (2005). Psychosocial functioning of borderline patients and Axis II comparison subjects followed prospectively for six years. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 19–29.Google Scholar

Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Reich, D. B., & Fitzmaurice, G. (2010). The 10-year course of psychosocial functioning among patients with borderline personality disorder and Axis II comparison subjects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 122, 103–109.Google Scholar

Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2002). Inter-rater and test-retest reliability of the diagnostic interview for borderlines. Journal of Personality Disorders, 16, 270–276.Google Scholar

Zanarini, M. C., Skodol, A. E., Bender, D. S., Dolan, R., Sanislow, C. A., Schaefer, E., … Gunderson, J. G. (2000). The Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study: Reliability of Axis I and II diagnoses. Journal of Personality Disorders, 14, 291–299.Google Scholar

Zimbardo, P. G., Andersen, S. M., & Kabat, L. G. (1981). Induced hearing deficit generates experimental paranoia. Science, 212, 1529–1531.Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.