“Dzimba dzinogara vanhu, ngano dzinogara nhoroondo” (Houses shelter people, but folktales preserve history). This Shona proverb underscores the centrality of oral narratives in sustaining the collective memory and identity of an Indigenous people who comprise one of the largest Bantu-speaking ethnic groups in Africa. As a Shona person, I view public humanities not merely as an academic exercise but also as a vital space for cultural affirmation, storytelling, and continuity. It is through oral tradition, art, and communal memory that we transmit who we are and who we aspire to become. In writing this piece, I employed a multifaceted methodological approach that combines personal narrative, community engagement, and literature review to position myself within the discourse on Indigenous knowledge, both within the Shona community and globally. My formative experiences in my rural village under the guidance of Chief Serima (Gutu) in Masvingo Province provided early encounters with oral traditions that continue to shape my worldview. In constructing this work, I also engaged in in-depth conversations with community members about oral histories, their meanings, and what it truly signifies to be Shona, grounding my analysis in both collective memory and personal experience. This self-ethnography draws on scholarly texts, such as Santos and Dillon, on Indigenous epistemologies and cultural resilience, enabling me to connect Shona narratives with broader international perspectives.Footnote 1 This integrative approach not only celebrates the richness of Shona oral history but also places it within contemporary debates about the preservation of Indigenous knowledge amid globalisation.
The Shona people are an Indigenous ethnic group primarily located in Southern Africa, with a significant population in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Their language encompasses multiple dialects, such as Zezuru, Karanga, Kalanga, Kore Kore, Manyika, and Ndau, and boasts a rich cultural history dating back over a thousand years.Footnote 2 As an Indigenous group, the Shona have managed to preserve their language, traditional beliefs, and practices that predate colonial influence in Southern Africa. Contemporary debates surrounding Indigenous Shona oral traditions often centre on balancing economic development with the preservation of cultural heritage. On the one hand, there are debates around the legitimacy and historical accuracy of oral narratives versus colonial written records, questioning how these traditions are interpreted and incorporated into modern identity. On the other hand, the issue of industrial encroachment in pursuit of economic development has added a pressing dimension to these debates. For instance, Chinese mining operations extracting black granite in Mutoko have sparked intense controversy by allegedly desecrating Indigenous sites that hold profound spiritual and historical value for the Shona.Footnote 3 This conflict has mobilised local communities, who argue that such activities not only desecrate sacred landscapes but also erode their living traditions and ancestral memories passed down orally through generations.Footnote 4 As these debates continue, they highlight a broader global challenge: honouring Indigenous knowledge systems amid rapid economic and infrastructural development, ensuring that these knowledge systems are preserved for future generations.
Extractive projects on ancestral lands highlight the urgency of protecting Indigenous peoples’ rights. Knowledge is also part of resilience, as Shona ancestral epistemologies must be protected from destructive projects. This article explores the Shona people’s public humanities, examining their oral traditions and pre-colonial sociopolitical systems, to understand how they are a form of resilience against the impacts of colonial and post-colonial developments. Indigenous Shona people’s oral traditions hold deep ecological wisdom, sustainable practices, and unique social structures that offer solutions to some of our contemporary global challenges. By learning about the Shona oral tradition, the world can gain insight into the power of storytelling to bind communities together and transmit knowledge across generations. The Shona people’s myths, folktales, and oral histories challenge the linear, written modes of history dominant in many modern societies.Footnote 5 It also encourages us to appreciate alternative ways of knowing, where memory, performance, and community engagement not only preserve history but also foster social harmony and sustainable practices. By embracing the Indigenous ways of the Shona, we broaden our understanding of our global identity, resilience, and the importance of cultural resilience.
It is important to value local and Indigenous knowledge systems, such as that of the Shona, as integral to global history. In The End of Cognitive Empire, Boaventura de Sousa Santos introduces the concept of epistemologies of the South to challenge Eurocentric thought’s dominance over the knowledge systems of marginalised communities.Footnote 6 Santos insists on the impacts of epistemicide, referring to the systematic destruction of Indigenous knowledge and cultures through colonialism.Footnote 7 His framework of cognitive justice is useful to expand global knowledge by incorporating Shona’s ways of knowing. Following Santos’ approach, this essay discusses preserving Shona epistemologies, philosophy, and governance as a vital act of cognitive justice. This is more than an act of reparation after epistemicide. By asserting their cultural sovereignty through oral tradition, the Shona people have contributed to what Santos calls an ecology of knowledge, where diverse epistemologies coexist and inform one another, challenging the dominance of Western-centric paradigms.Footnote 8
Embracing Shona oral traditions and their post-colonial transformations is also part of Indigenous Futurism, a way of imagining the future through the lens of Indigenous knowledge, traditions, and worldviews. Coined by Anishinaabe scholar Grace Dillon, this term challenges colonial narratives that portray Indigenous cultures as relics of the past by demonstrating how the Shona people and their epistemologies continue to shape the present and future through oral traditions.Footnote 9 In the context of the Shona people, Indigenous Futurism offers a framework for exploring how traditional epistemologies can inform the future, beyond the global South. Indigenous Futurism provides an opportunity for the Shona to reclaim and project their heritage into the future, ensuring its continuity and evolution in a globalised world.
This essay begins by defining indigeneity in Africa and Zimbabwe, analysing its application to majority groups like the Shona, and placing Shona epistemologies within national identity conflicts. It then explores how Shona oral traditions have mobilised communities against extractive threats, presenting orality as a form of cultural resistance. Next, it examines major myths such as Tsuro na Gudo and Chaminuka that teach moral values and ecological wisdom, before analysing pre-colonial sociopolitical institutions, decentralised chiefdoms, communal land tenure, and family networks that sustain Shona community cohesion. The discourse looks at the suppression and hybridisation of Shona knowledge by missionary and colonial forces, resulting in a decline in oral traditions despite ongoing resilience efforts. It subsequently discusses contemporary challenges posed by globalisation, urbanisation, and commodification, proposing Indigenous Futurism/Afrofuturism as a framework for reimagining the future of Shona epistemologies.
1. What is indigeneity in Africa and Zimbabwe?
The term Indigenous lacks a universally agreed-upon definition. The notion of Indigenous people on the African continent seems to be different from other parts of the world.Footnote 10 Unlike Indigenous people in regions like South America, North America, Australia, or parts of Asia, where colonisation often relegated Indigenous people to the margins of society, the Shona and many other Indigenous communities in Africa are part of the majority population in their respective countries. This means that their struggle for recognition often involves navigating the complex interplay between state formation and Indigenous rights. For the Shona people, their enduring Indigenous epistemologies serve not only as a testament to their resilience against colonial and post-colonial disruptions but also as an integral part of national identity and cultural diversity in Africa. It is important to note that Shona indigeneity is not just about ancestry but also includes lived experiences reflected in their language, spiritual beliefs, and governance.Footnote 11 The Shona’s ability to maintain and adapt their epistemologies demonstrates the dynamic and evolving nature of indigeneity in the modern world.
According to the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights working group on Indigenous people, “it is not necessary or desirable to provide a strict definition of Indigenous people, as such a definition could be restrictive and exclude certain groups.”Footnote 12 Although the constitution of Zimbabwe references Indigenous Zimbabweans in section 295 (1), it does not provide a specific definition for Indigenous people. Despite not being explicitly defined in the constitution, in practice, the term “Indigenous Zimbabweans” has been interpreted to refer to Zimbabweans of African descent, distinguishing them from European and Asian groups. Zimbabwe’s Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment Act, passed in 2007, defined an Indigenous Zimbabwean as follows:
Any person who before the 18th of April 1980 was disadvantaged by unfair discrimination on the grounds of his or her race, and any descendant of such person.Footnote 13
The law aimed to address economic inequalities created during the colonial era and that persisted in the post-colonial period by increasing the ownership, management, and control of business by historically disadvantaged Zimbabweans of African descent.Footnote 14
It is also important to note that the term Indigenous is not limited to small or numerically minor populations. Instead, it is often used to refer to descendants of pre-colonial or native inhabitants of a territory with deep ancestral ties, distinctive cultural practices, and a continuous historical connection to pre-colonial societies.Footnote 15 The Shona people are considered Indigenous because their traditions, languages, and social institutions are rooted in centuries of pre-colonial history, reflecting a preservation of cultural identity despite colonial disruptions and modern political changes. For the Shona, the pre-colonial period spans from as early as 400 CE to the rise and decline of state kingdoms such as Great Zimbabwe, Munhumutapa, and the Rozvi Empire between the eleventh and nineteenth centuries, until Portugal formally declared Mozambique a colony in 1885. Meanwhile, the British South Africa Company obtained a Royal Charter in 1888 and established a colonial presence in present-day Zimbabwe by 1890. Consequently, the Shona people, particularly those in the eastern regions, found themselves caught between Portuguese and British imperial zones, facing overlapping influences and struggles for control.
This pre-colonial heritage highlights the Shona people’s status as Indigenous peoples whose cultural and political systems remained intact until Portuguese and British incursions in the late nineteenth century disrupted their autonomous societies. As descendants of the populations inhabiting the Zimbabwe Plateau before European colonisation, they meet broadly accepted definitions of “Indigenous peoples,” which emphasise historical continuity, distinct cultural institutions, and a strong connection to ancestral lands.
2. Shona oralities: Histories, myths, and folktales
Narratives in the form of myths, folktales, and oral histories are essential to understanding Shona social structures, cosmologies, and symbolic systems. These narratives communicate moral lessons, explain natural phenomena, reinforce social norms, and offer insights into the metaphysical world. Shona oral traditions usually centre around the importance of family, community, and spirituality. These oral traditions include Ngano (Folktales), Zvirevo (Proverbs), Nhetembo (Praise Poetry), and Mimhanzi neMitambo (Music and Dance), each serving a distinct yet interrelated function in shaping their Indigenous identity and continuity.
For example, Ngano (Folktales) is a principal form of oral literature used to educate children, critique social behaviour, and preserve communal values. These stories often feature anthropomorphised animals and revolve around moral dilemmas and resolutions. A prominent example is Tsuro na Gudo (The Hare and the Baboon), in which the cunning hare consistently outsmarts the physically stronger baboon.Footnote 16 Such tales highlight intelligence, adaptability, and social ethics as valued traits, not just brute strength. While Zvirevo (Proverbs) are concise expressions of wisdom that encapsulate everyday observations and moral lessons. Embedded in daily speech, they serve to reinforce norms and guide conduct. For example, the proverb “Chakafukidza dzimba matenga” (The roof conceals the secrets of the home) alludes to the hidden struggles within families, and the proverb “Usatukire maruva uchitarisa madzinde” (Do not insult the flowers while looking at the stems) advises against superficial judgements.Footnote 17
Nhetembo is Praise poetry used to honour individuals, clans, and ancestors. It is often recited during rituals and public events. These oral performances affirm identity through genealogical references and symbolic language. Also important to Nhetembo is Zvidawo, which are clan praise names used to invoke ancestral heritage and communicate social status and group belonging. Mimhanzi neMitambo (Music and dance) are integral to oral transmission, especially in ritual contexts for the Shona people.Footnote 18 Instruments such as the mbira (thumb piano) are used in spiritual ceremonies like the Bira, a nocturnal ritual that invites ancestral spirits to communicate with the living.Footnote 19 Dance forms such as Kokonya and Muchongoyo accompany celebratory and communal events, blending storytelling with performance (Gombe, Reference Gombe1998). Notable events for Mimhanzi and Mutambo are Bira. Bira is a ceremony where mediums enter trance states to channel ancestral spirits through song, dance, and possession.
Shona oral histories also help us understand their cosmology, which is deeply rooted in spiritual beliefs, particularly in the reverence of Mwari (God) and the role of Vadzimu (ancestral spirits). Shona oral history explains the origin of life through Mwari, also known as Musikavanhu (Creator of humanity), who created the earth and all beings. The belief system around Mwari is monotheistic, and although Mwari is omnipresent, he is traditionally believed to communicate with the living through spirit mediums and sacred sites such as Matonjeni caves located in southwestern Zimbabwe. In the Shona oral tradition, Matonjeni is described as the primary site for communicating with Mwari. It is at Matonjeni that spirit mediums, known as Svikiro, conduct ceremonies to petition Mwari for rain, fertility, and guidance on communal matters. The shrine is also associated with ancestral spirits (Vadzimu), serving as a conduit between the spiritual and physical realms of creation.
Oral histories, such as the story of Chaminuka, also recount the importance of Svikiro (spirit mediums). Chaminuka is a figure in Shona oral history who was an influential spiritual leader and prophet with great wisdom and the ability to communicate with the spirit world. Oral history tells us that Chaminuka is a descendant of Tovera, the earliest known ancestor of the Shona, whose lineage is considered central to Shona identity. His great-great-great-grandfather, Murenga Sororenzou, is credited as founding the Great Zimbabwe kingdom, and oral history usually places Chamunika as a symbol of Shona unity and resilience. Chaminuka not only possessed the power to communicate with the spirits and prophecy but also had supernatural abilities to tame wild animals, a prominent falconer using the African fish eagle when hunting. Chaminuka prophesied the arrival of vanhu vasina mabvi (people without knees), symbolising European colonisers; a vision fulfilled with the British colonisation of Zimbabwe and the Portuguese colonisation of Mozambique. Europeans were called vanhu vasina mabvi because, upon first contact, Indigenous Shona speakers noticed that their long trousers concealed their knees, making it seem as though they had none.Footnote 20
Myths such as Dzivaguru and the Creation of Rivers explain the cyclical nature of life, narrating how Dzivaguru, one of the praise names for Mwari, a water spirit, is responsible for maintaining rivers and water sources. While also teaching respect for nature, a sacred gift from the spirit world. The oral history of Dzivaguru not only preserves ancestral wisdom but also offers a framework for understanding the Shona people’s place in the world, their responsibilities to nature, and their spiritual connection to land and water, which are key aspects that written records often overlook or erase. The myth of Mwedzi (Moon) and Masasi (Stars) explains the cosmological origins of the lunar cycles, symbolising the cycles of growth and decline in nature. In the myth, Mwedzi, a male figure, marries Masasi, and feeling lonely, marries several Masasi and eventually grows tired of them. When bored with his wives, Mwedzi retreats to solitude.Footnote 21 Today, the myth of Mwedzi and Masasi encapsulates the Shona’s relational ontology, symbolising the profound interconnectedness among humans, nature, and the divine. The legend of Venekatsvimborume is also a myth that explains the origins of death among the Shona people. According to the story, humans were originally immortal, but one day, a mythical figure, Venekatsvimborume, out of anger, stole the secret of immortality and threw it into a forest.
Shona myths and oral histories endure not only as folkloric curiosities but also as living frameworks through which post-colonial Shona communities explore identity, environment, and power. These Shona oral traditions have mobilised communities against extractive threats such as black granite mining in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe, framing orality as a form of cultural resistance. Today, Dzivaguru’s rainmaking abilities, rooted in reciprocal relationships between humans, spirits, and nature, resonate in discussions about climate resilience and sustainable agriculture, reminding us that stewardship of natural resources is inseparable from cultural memory. In the public humanities, sharing and interpreting these oral histories bring subaltern voices into broader dialogues amid epistemic injustice. Shona oral histories invite global audiences to engage with local knowledge systems, demonstrating the richness and relevance of Indigenous epistemologies in addressing today’s social, political, and ecological crises.
3. Kinship and land in Shona identity
Pre-colonial Shona political systems, economic practices, and social organisation were deeply rooted in Indigenous cultural frameworks, shaping their identity and social cohesion. Their implications for chieftaincy, kinship networks, and land tenure are central to Shona worldviews. In the pre-colonial period, Shona political systems were decentralised, consisting of small, semi-autonomous chiefdoms under Paramount Chiefs or Kingdoms. The most prominent political entities in the pre-colonial era were the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, the Mutapa Empire, and the Rozvi Empire, which flourished between the eleventh and nineteenth centuries. Governance was centred around a Mambo (chief), whose authority was based on hereditary succession, generally along patrilineal lines.Footnote 22 Chiefs held religious and political roles, acting as spiritual and administrative leaders. Their authority was legitimised by ancestral connections, as chiefs were considered custodians of the land and natural resources.Footnote 23 The relationship between the chief and the people in pre-colonial Shona society was political and spiritual, with chiefs mediating between the living and the ancestors. Myths and legends were also employed to justify the Chief’s authority as either descendants of these legends or as protectors of humans, spirituality, and nature. Chiefs also played an essential role in land allocation and management, further strengthening their political influence. This system created a strong sense of identity, with chieftaincy representing stability and cultural continuity. However, colonial rule disrupted traditional authority by undermining the legitimacy of Indigenous leaders.Footnote 24
The economy of the Shona before colonisation was mainly based on agriculture, with subsistence farming being the main economic activity. The Shona cultivated crops such as millet and sorghum, and also kept livestock.Footnote 25 Hunting, fishing, and gathering supplemented their farming efforts. Economic activities were community-based, with labour organised through kinship networks, strengthening collective identity and interdependence.Footnote 26 The Shona also participated in long-distance trade with other African communities, including the Swahili coast and the Portuguese. The Great Zimbabwe site demonstrates the Shona’s sophisticated trade networks, where goods like gold and ivory were exchanged for foreign products.Footnote 27 This participation in regional and international trade created a sense of prosperity and self-reliance.
Land ownership in pre-colonial Shona society was also communal, managed by the chief on behalf of the people and ancestors.Footnote 28 Land was regarded as a shared resource rather than private property. Individuals had the right to use the land as long as it remained productive and socially beneficial, with access to land being a core part of their identity and social duties. The introduction of colonial land policies, such as the Land Apportionment Act of 1930, by the British Colonial Authority dispossessed the Shona of their ancestral lands and significantly disrupted this system.Footnote 29 Colonial dispossession not only deprived the Shona of economic resources but also sought to sever their spiritual link to the land, leading to profound cultural and social upheaval.Footnote 30 Nonetheless, Shona oral histories, especially myths and legends, played a vital role in fostering the resilience of the Shona people and were crucial in preserving and revitalising their rich cultural heritage.
Pre-colonial Shona society was organised around kinship networks structured along patrilineal lines. Dzinza, a form of extended lineages that still exist in modern Shona society, formed the core of social life, and these familial networks were critical in organising economic production, social welfare, and political authority.Footnote 31 Dzinza remains a foundational framework that shapes one’s social identity, responsibilities, and spiritual connections. Marriage also played an important role in social organisation, with polygyny being shared, especially among wealthier individuals. This allowed for larger family units and strengthened alliances between clans.Footnote 32 The bride-wealth system (Roora) further reinforced social cohesion by creating strong family bonds.Footnote 33 Through these kinship networks, resources were shared, and labour was organised to support communal farming and other economic activities.Footnote 34
4 The impact of colonialism on the Shona public humanities
Colonialism had a profound and extensive impact on the Shona people’s Indigenous ways of life, knowledge systems, and modes of expression. These effects were experienced across all aspects of Shona society, social, cultural, and political, leading to important changes in their way of living. Colonial authorities actively aimed to suppress Indigenous Shona knowledge systems by introducing Western education and governance systems, which devalued and marginalised traditional forms of knowledge. Schools taught Western curricula, emphasising the English language, scientific knowledge, and Christian values at the expense of Shona oral traditions, spiritual beliefs, and Indigenous medical knowledge. This fostered a perception that Western knowledge was superior, gradually eroding traditional practices such as herbal medicine, rainmaking ceremonies, and the spiritual roles of spirit mediums in governance and decision-making.Footnote 35 Preserving oral histories was a key mechanism to keep knowledge and social systems alive in the face of epistemicide.
The imposition of colonial rule also impacted the Shona language and modes of expression. English was promoted as the language of administration, education, and commerce, diminishing the status of Shona as a medium of formal communication. This has resulted in a decline in the use of Shona in public discourse and formal settings, although it has remained dominant in informal contexts. Oral traditions, such as folktales, proverbs, and oral poetry, were sidelined in favour of written texts, reducing their role in education and cultural transmission. Linguistic erasure was a key strategy to displace Shona sovereignty while also fostering epistemological dispossession. Consequently, the intergenerational transmission of Shona oral traditions was weakened, along with its role in public humanities.Footnote 36
Despite these complex forms of colonial dispossession, the Shona people have found ways to resist and preserve their ancestral ways of life. Cultural syncretism flourished, with Shona traditions being incorporated into Christian practices or adapted to fit within the colonial framework.Footnote 37 Christian and Shona syncretism can be seen in choral styles such as Makweyera. Footnote 38 Colonialism in Zimbabwe disrupted the Shona’s Indigenous ways of life, but their identity and sovereignty were consistently defended through cultural resilience and political struggle. The liberation movements, drawing on historical and spiritual symbolism from the Shona past, culminated in the restoration of Zimbabwe’s political sovereignty in 1980. However, post-colonial governance introduced new challenges to achieving full agency for the Shona people, as land, political power, and governance issues remained contested.
5 Preserving oral traditions amidst colonial and post-colonial pressures
Amidst colonial and post-colonial pressures, Shona oral traditions have been preserved through a combination of family transmission, integration with spiritual practices, adaptation to changing circumstances, and incorporation into nationalist movements and modern institutions. These strategies have played an important role in shaping Shona identity today. Storytelling sessions, Kutandara, have preserved Shona oral traditions through family and community gatherings, particularly in rural areas where they remain a common evening activity. Even with the advent of formal education, Shona families continue to rely on oral traditions to teach moral values and cultural knowledge, ensuring that ancestral knowledge lives on in everyday life.
Colonial pressures, such as missionary efforts to convert the Shona to Christianity, posed a direct threat to Indigenous knowledge systems. Kutandara was discouraged, with the colonial authorities and missionaries favouring Western forms of expression. Kutandara was seen as reinforcing the Shona people’s connection to traditional beliefs and practices, which missionaries aimed to replace with Christianity. In response, some Shona oral traditions were hybridised with Christian beliefs, particularly after the spread of Christianity. Christian hymns and teachings were sometimes blended with Shona proverbs or stories to create a syncretic form of cultural expression that allowed Indigenous traditions to survive alongside Christian doctrines. For example, Makwayera is a style of choral singing developed by Shona Christians by combining elements of their traditional vocal music with the Western four-part harmony introduced by missionaries. Makwayera features a call and response, and a strong vocal leader, reflecting the integration of Christian musical structures with Shona performance styles. This fusion has kept Indigenous traditions relevant even as Western influences took hold (Maganga & Tembo, Reference Maganga and Tembo2024).
During the Second Chimurenga, the Rhodesian Bush War in the 1960s and 1970s, Shona myths and legends were used to strengthen resistance. Nationalist leaders and guerrilla fighters drew heavily on Shona myths, symbols, and ancestral worship to mobilise the population against colonial rule. The invocation of ancestral spirits such as Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi, particularly during Chimurenga, reaffirmed the importance of oral traditions in asserting Shona identity and sovereignty, which persist today.Footnote 39 Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi were Shona spirit mediums who led the First Chimurenga (1896-1897), a resistance movement against British colonial control in modern-day Zimbabwe. Their invocation during the Second Chimurenga (1966–1979) inspired and legitimised the liberation fight by representing continuity with previous resistance and expressing the persistent spirit of defiance against injustice.
After Zimbabwe attained its Independence from Britain in 1980, there have been post-colonial efforts to promote Shona culture and identity as part of national reconstruction. The formal education system now promotes the Shona language and literature as subjects of study in schools, which has helped revitalise folktales, proverbs, and oral histories. Cultural festivals, national commemorations, and traditional music and dance have further contributed to revaluing oral traditions. Scholarly research on Shona oral traditions flourished as universities first documented and then analysed Shona public humanities for future generations.Footnote 40 With the advent of radio, television, and, later, the Internet, Shona’s oral traditions gained a new platform for transmission, broadcast in the Shona language on radio and television programmes. The new era of digital humanities expanded the reach of Shona oralities beyond local communities, preserving them in digital formats and ensuring broader accessibility across borders and through time.Footnote 41
6 What do post-colonial narratives and socio-economic developments tell us about the Shona community’s contemporary challenges?
Post-colonial narratives and socio-economic developments in Zimbabwe, particularly concerning the Shona community, reveal a complex interaction of challenges shaped by globalisation, urbanisation, and cultural commodification. These challenges reflect the tension between tradition and modernity as the Shona people navigate cultural, social, and economic shifts. Globalisation has brought both opportunities and disruptions to the Shona community. On the one hand, globalisation has opened access to new markets, technologies, and ideas, leading to economic growth in certain sectors and greater connectivity with the global economy. However, it has also posed significant challenges. Globalisation, with its emphasis on Western norms and values, has led to the gradual erosion of Indigenous knowledge systems. Traditional Shona practices in medicine, spirituality, and governance have been increasingly sidelined in favour of Western approaches.Footnote 42 The Shona people are struggling to preserve language, communal values, and ancestral customs, as global influences increasingly permeate daily life.
Urbanisation in post-colonial Zimbabwe has significantly reshaped the social fabric of the Shona community, creating both economic opportunities and new forms of social fragmentation. Urbanisation has led to the breakdown of kinship networks and social support systems in traditionally structured Shona society.Footnote 43 In cities, the sense of communal belonging and social cohesion that exists in rural areas is often lost, leading to the rise of individualism and alienation.Footnote 44 The urban environment often distances individuals from their traditional Shona heritage. Rituals, ceremonies, and practices tied to rural life, such as ancestor worship and community gatherings, are often difficult to maintain in the city. This cultural disconnection is especially pronounced among the younger generation, many of whom adopt more modern lifestyles and have limited engagement with their cultural traditions.Footnote 45
As Zimbabwe’s economy has faced challenges, there has been an increased commodification of Shona culture, where aspects of traditional life are packaged and sold, often for tourist consumption or as part of global cultural exchanges.Footnote 46 This commodification presents both opportunities and dilemmas. It has generated economic benefits for some Shona communities through cultural tourism and the sale of traditional crafts, music, and sculptures. Shona stone sculpture, for example, has become internationally renowned, providing income for artists and their communities. However, this form of economic engagement often requires the Shona to market their culture in ways that cater to Western tastes, which can lead to the simplification or distortion of traditions.Footnote 47 This risks reducing Shona crafts to mere commodities, stripping them of their deeper spiritual and social meanings. Traditional rituals, dances, and artworks, which once held important roles in community life, may be performed primarily for financial gain. This has led to concerns about the loss of authenticity and the commercialisation of sacred practices.Footnote 48
In post-colonial Zimbabwe, Shona identity remains central to national narratives, yet it is constantly being renegotiated in response to global and local pressures. In response to globalisation and urbanisation, interest in traditional Shona practices has been revived, particularly in rural areas. Both governmental and non-governmental initiatives have driven efforts to preserve Shona languages, oral histories, and cultural practices. This reflects a growing recognition of the importance of cultural heritage in maintaining a sense of identity in a rapidly changing world.Footnote 49
7 Shona futurisms
Oral traditions, myths, and folklore are important in preserving the Shona people’s collective memory and cultural resilience. The analysis of pre-colonial political systems and social structures reveals a deeply rooted identity shaped by chieftaincy, kinship networks, and communal land tenure. Colonialism, however, disrupted these systems, leading to significant cultural and sociopolitical transformations. Despite these challenges, Shona culture has persisted through hybridisation and adaptation, especially through anti-colonial movements and post-colonial nation-building efforts. In contemporary Zimbabwe, the Shona community continues to navigate the complexities of globalisation, urbanisation, and cultural commodification, striving to maintain their rich cultural heritage in the face of modern pressures. I shed light on the enduring significance of Shona oral traditions and the dynamic evolution of their identity in response to historical and socio-economic changes.
For Shona futurism, orality stands as a vital pillar, not only for the Shona people but also for all people’s seeking to affirm their identity and resist the erasure of their histories. As Rettová reminds us in “Writing the Future and the Possible in Swahili and Shona.”Footnote 50 Shona futurism entails the use of traditional Shona storytelling techniques to project speculative visions of future identities and sociopolitical possibilities, thus reclaiming narrative agency and challenging colonial historicity. Dillon’s anthology provides the foundational framework of Indigenous Futurism, offering Shona futurism a model for transforming oral histories into speculative visions that reclaim agency over both past and future.Footnote 51 Oral tradition embodies the collective wisdom, spiritual depth, and communal resilience passed through generations, serving as a living archive of Shona epistemologies. As Indigenous people confront modern challenges either through the desecration of sacred sites or the pressures of globalisation and industrialisation, oral narratives counterbalance dominant historical narratives, reaffirming the importance of Indigenous epistemologies while fostering cognitive justice. Ultimately, the enduring power of oral tradition lies in its ability to bridge past and present, inviting a global audience to appreciate and learn from the dynamic heritage of the Shona and other Indigenous peoples.
From a personal perspective, being Shona is about carrying forward a surviving legacy that connects the wisdom of our ancestors with the challenges and opportunities of modern life through our oral traditions. It is about being proud in our language, art, and communal bonds, and the responsibility to honour our past while nurturing a future where our cultural identity remains vibrant and resilient. This identity is a personal heritage and a collective strength, affirming who we are even as we engage in a rapidly changing world.
Author contribution
Conceptualization: T.M.
Conflicts of interests
The author declares none.
Open access
