In recent years, Malaysia has faced a growing number of hazards due to climate change, including floods and landslides. These hazards, particularly floods, have demonstrated that disaster impacts are determined by the physical intensity of the events and the resilience of the affected communities. For example, the 2014-2015 Kelantan floods caused widespread damage, but the outcomes varied significantly across different regions depending on how communities responded.Reference Abid, Sulaiman and Chan1–Reference Tam, Rahman and Harun3 Disasters, after all, are not simply the product of hazards, they arise when hazards intersect with vulnerabilities in a community.Reference Alias, Salim and Taib4, Reference Nguyen-Trung, Forbes-Mewett and Arunachalam5 This research examines how Malaysia’s sociocultural landscape comprising ethnic diversity, religious beliefs, social norms, and community structures shapes disaster preparedness, response, and resilience.
Malaysia’s population reflects a rich tapestry of ethnicities, including Malays, Chinese, Indians, and Indigenous groups such as the Orang Asli and Iban.Reference Reddy and Selvanathan6, Reference Awang, Ahmad and Rahman7 Alongside this diversity comes a variety of religious beliefs, including Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Indigenous practices. This sociocultural diversity creates both challenges and opportunities in disaster management. Understanding these dynamics is critical for developing effective strategies that leverage the strengths of Malaysia’s diverse communities.Reference Mohd Khalli and Mohd Sharif8, Reference Bahari, Alwi and Jahan9
A key element in disaster response in Malaysia is the traditional practice of gotong-royong a collective action rooted in Malay-Muslim culture. This practice encourages mutual aid and communal cooperation, especially in times of crisis, such as during floods. However, despite its importance at the local level, gotong-royong is often overlooked in formal disaster management frameworks, leading to a gap between government-driven initiatives and community-led efforts.Reference Drury, Carter and Cocking10, Reference Saja, Goonetilleke and Teo11 Ignoring such embedded practices risks weakening overall resilience.
Religious beliefs also play a central role in shaping how communities perceive and respond to hazards. In Malay-Muslim communities, the concept of takdir (fate) can either foster proactive preparedness or encourage a more fatalistic attitude, where people believe disasters are beyond human control.Reference Mohd Khalli and Mohd Sharif8, Reference Bahari, Alwi and Jahan9 Meanwhile, religious institutions like mosques, temples, and churches are often central to relief efforts, providing shelter and distributing resources.Reference Chua, Kadirvelu and Yasin12 Yet, the integration of these institutions into formal disaster management strategies remains limited, despite their capacity to enhance community resilience.
Social cohesion, trust, and informal networks are crucial for effective disaster response. Ethnic and religious communities and NGOs often act swiftly and efficiently, sometimes outpacing formal government responses. These social networks play a vital role in disseminating information, coordinating evacuations, and organizing relief efforts.Reference Drury, Carter and Cocking10–Reference Buslima, Omar and Jamaluddin13 In rural and urban areas alike, the strength of these networks is a key determinant of resilience, although multicultural tensions in some regions may sometimes inhibit collective action.Reference Zulkepli, Diana and Idris2, Reference Tam, Rahman and Harun3
Gender dynamics further complicate disaster response. While women frequently take on essential roles in managing households and ensuring family safety during crises, they are often excluded from decision-making processes at the community level.Reference Buslima, Omar and Jamaluddin13 This exclusion undermines the effectiveness of disaster response and fails to harness the unique contributions women can make to resilience efforts.
This study seeks to explore how Malaysia’s unique sociocultural factors, including ethnic diversity, religious beliefs, and community structures, shape disaster preparedness, response, and resilience. Key questions include: How traditional practices like gotong-royong and informal social networks enhance community-based disaster management? How do religious beliefs influence attitudes toward risk and preparedness? What are the barriers and opportunities for integrating these sociocultural factors into formal disaster management policies? By addressing these questions, the study aims to propose culturally informed strategies that align with the lived realities of Malaysia’s diverse communities.
1. Literature Review
Disaster management has been heavily focused on structural and technical interventions for decades. These approaches primarily address the physical aspects of disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. However, recent studies underscore the significance of sociocultural dimensions in building disaster resilience.Reference Samsuri, Abu-Bakar and Unjah14, Reference Arcaya, Raker and Waters15 These dimensions include local knowledge, social cohesion, belief systems, and cultural practices, which shape how communities prepare for, respond to, and recover from hazards.Reference Shukla and MacKenzie16, Reference Imperiale and Vanclay17 In Malaysia, a multicultural and diverse nation frequently affected by hazards such as floods, landslides, and tropical storms, the sociocultural fabric plays a pivotal role in disaster management.Reference Rouhanizadeh, Kermanshachi and Nipa18
1.1. Traditional Knowledge and Its Role in Disaster Preparedness
Traditional knowledge, particularly among Indigenous communities, has been identified as a critical factor in disaster preparedness.Reference Kamarudin, Rashid and Omar Chong19 In Malaysia, Indigenous groups such as the Orang Asli and the Iban have long relied on ecological knowledge passed down through generations to predict environmental hazards. They interpret changes in animal behavior, shifts in water levels, and other natural indicators to anticipate floods and other risks.Reference Saifullah, Masud and Kari20, Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and MdS21 In the Orang Asli community of Tasik Chini, efforts to enhance disaster resilience through improved livelihood, social capital, and preparedness have been supported by various organizations.Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and Sarkar22 However, despite their strong social bonds, these communities often exhibit low levels of formal disaster preparedness, highlighting the need for greater engagement and access to resources.Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and Sarkar23
Despite its importance, traditional knowledge remains marginalized in Malaysia’s predominantly top-down disaster policies, which prioritize modern scientific methods while sidelining valuable Indigenous practices.Reference Abid, Sulaiman and Wei24 Scholars argue that integrating traditional knowledge into modern disaster management frameworks provides contextual insights that are immediately accessible to local communities, making disaster response more effective.Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and Sarkar23 However, external factors such as urbanization and policy centralization often weaken the application of traditional knowledge in disaster management.
Figure 1 illustrates the interplay between traditional knowledge systems, the disruptive factors affecting their continuity, and recommendations for integrating them into formal disaster frameworks. This visual representation underscores the need for inclusive policies that balance Indigenous wisdom with modern scientific approaches, ensuring that local expertise remains a vital component of disaster preparedness strategies.
Traditional knowledge, disruptive factors, and recommendations.
Globally, integrating traditional ecological knowledge into disaster management has demonstrated promising results. Studies from Indonesia emphasize how Indigenous systems enhance community autonomy during crises, reducing vulnerability and strengthening resilience.Reference Abid, Sulaiman and Wei24, Reference Alhadi, Sasmita and Yulfa25 Lessons from these cases could inform Malaysia’s policies, particularly in rural or remote regions, where formal disaster infrastructure is often limited.Reference Nopriyasman, Asnan and Fauzi26, Reference Sarkar and Modak27 For instance, integrating Indigenous Local Knowledge (ILK) with official strategies in the Pekan district has shown success in flood risk management by facilitating knowledge-sharing between the Orang Asli, Malay communities, and local authorities.Reference Vijitharan28 These examples highlight the need for a hybrid disaster management approach, ensuring that traditional knowledge is not only preserved but also systematically incorporated into formal risk reduction efforts.
1.2. Social Cohesion and Collective Action in Disaster Response
In Malaysia, gotong-royong, a deeply rooted concept of communal cooperation, plays a pivotal role in disaster response and recovery.Reference Chua, Kadirvelu and Yasin12–Reference Samsuri, Abu-Bakar and Unjah14 This traditional practice fosters solidarity, mutual aid, and shared responsibility, enabling communities to mobilize quickly in times of crisis. Particularly in rural areas, gotong-royong has long been essential for coordinating relief efforts, organizing clean-up operations, and reconstructing damaged infrastructure.Reference Halim, Shamsuddin and Abdullah29–Reference Cahyono, Wuryanta and Lastiantoro31
While commonly associated with Malay communities, collective disaster response efforts are not exclusive to one ethnic or religious group. Chinese, Indian, and Indigenous communities engage in similar practices, often organized through clan associations, religious institutions, or NGOs.Reference Abid, Chan and Sulaiman30, Reference Cahyono, Wuryanta and Lastiantoro31 These networks frequently respond faster than formal government aid systems, leveraging localized knowledge and trust to coordinate assistance.Reference Rotua Nainggolan, Subroto and Marsoyo32
However, social cohesion in disaster response is not always inclusive. Urbanization and multicultural dynamics introduce challenges in interethnic cooperation, sometimes leading to unequal access to community support networks.Reference Yuhertiana, Zakaria and Suhartini33–Reference Ntontis, Drury and Amlôt38 While gotong-royong strengthens resilience, marginalized groups, such as migrant workers and lower-income individuals, may have limited access to these communal structures. The effectiveness of social cohesion in disaster response depends on ensuring inclusivity and fostering intercommunity collaboration. Table 1 summarizes key sociocultural factors influencing disaster response in Malaysia.
Sociocultural factors in disaster management
These sociocultural dimensions shape how communities prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters, reinforcing the need for culturally sensitive disaster policies that address both strengths and gaps in social cohesion.
1.3. The Influence of Religious Beliefs on Disaster Perception and Response
Religion is a fundamental aspect of life in Malaysia, where Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Indigenous faiths coexist.Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and MdS21–Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and Sarkar23 Religious beliefs significantly influence how Malaysians perceive hazards and how they respond to disasters. For instance, the Islamic principle of takdir (predestination) can lead to fatalistic attitudes, where some individuals believe that hazards are acts of God and beyond human control.Reference Mohd Khalli and Mohd Sharif8, Reference Bahari, Alwi and Jahan9 This mindset may reduce proactive disaster preparedness as people place more faith in divine intervention than in preventive measures.Reference Arcaya, Raker and Waters15 Conversely, religious institutions often provide critical support during disasters. Mosques, temples, and churches regularly serve as shelters and distribution centers for aid during crises.Reference Elcheroth and Drury39 Religious leaders also play an essential role in shaping risk perceptions and encouraging community participation in disaster preparedness efforts.Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and MdS21–Reference Nopriyasman, Asnan and Fauzi26 For instance, during the 2014 floods in Kelantan, mosques were central to relief operations, mobilizing volunteers and resources.Reference Azhar, Md Akhir and Mohamad40 This dual role of religion both facilitating and sometimes hindering disaster management emphasizes the need to understand how faith influences disaster response in Malaysia.
1.4. Gender Roles and Cultural Norms in Disaster Management
Cultural norms, particularly gender roles, significantly impact how communities respond to disasters in Malaysia. In traditional, rural communities, women are often marginalized in decision-making processes related to disaster preparedness and response.Reference Remly, Sabaruddin and Kamaruddin41 Despite being primary caregivers responsible for managing household resources and caring for vulnerable family members during crises, women are frequently excluded from community-level disaster planning.Reference Seman, Abdul Rahim and Tukiman42, Reference Tobi, Razak and Siow43 This exclusion undermines the effectiveness of disaster response efforts. Research shows that empowering and involving women in disaster management strengthens community resilience.Reference Singh, Tabe and Martin44
A recent study from Nepal highlighted that training programs specifically tailored for women in disaster-prone areas improved household-level preparedness and increased overall community resilience.Reference McLaren, Wong and Nguyen45, Reference Tearne, Guragain and Ghimire46 Introducing similar initiatives in Malaysia could address gender-based exclusion and enhance resilience.Reference Luna and Hilhorst47, Reference Castañeda, Bronfman and Cisternas48 When women are given leadership roles or are included in decision-making processes, communities become more adaptive and responsive to crises.Reference Rushton, Phibbs and Kenney49, Reference Lee, Huang and Kuo50 Addressing gender-based exclusion through more inclusive policies can lead to more robust disaster preparedness and response strategies.Reference Fatema, East and Islam51
1.5. Integrating Sociocultural Factors into Formal Disaster Management Policies
While Malaysia’s government, through agencies such as the National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA), has made strides in disaster risk reduction, the integration of sociocultural factors into formal disaster management policies remains limited.Reference Cahyono, Wuryanta and Lastiantoro31, Reference Rotua Nainggolan, Subroto and Marsoyo32, Reference Loganathan52, Reference Ntontis, Drury and Amlôt38 Current disaster management strategies emphasize top-down, technologically driven approaches, including early warning systems, flood barriers, and evacuation plans.Reference Omar Chong and Kamarudin53, Reference Chow, Francis and Ng54 However, these technical interventions often overlook the deeply embedded cultural practices and social structures that shape community responses to hazards.Reference Omar Chong and Kamarudin53–Reference Iswanto, Gustina Zainal and Murodov55 Incorporating sociocultural factors into disaster management policies could substantially enhance their effectiveness. For instance, engaging religious institutions, Indigenous leaders, and local organizations in disaster preparedness efforts can improve the reach and resonance of disaster education campaigns.Reference Shukla and MacKenzie16 Religious institutions such as mosques and temples, which often serve as community hubs during crises, could play a formalized role in disseminating disaster-related information and providing shelter.Reference Abd Samat, Abdul Rashid and Mohd Yunus34
Additionally, Indigenous knowledge systems offer valuable, context-specific insights that could complement scientific approaches to disaster management, especially in rural or isolated areas.Reference Abid, Sulaiman and Wei24 The need for community-based disaster risk reduction (CBDRR) approaches is growing, particularly those that empower local communities to take ownership of disaster preparedness and response strategies. Scholars argue that bottom-up initiatives are often more sustainable and culturally aligned with local realities than purely technical solutions imposed from above.Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and Sarkar23 Integrating sociocultural practices into formal frameworks would bridge the gap between government initiatives and community-driven efforts and make disaster management strategies more adaptive to Malaysia’s diverse sociocultural landscape.
1.6. Challenges and Opportunities in the Malaysian Context
The sociocultural diversity of Malaysia offers both challenges and opportunities in disaster resilience. One of the key challenges lies in the marginalization of certain groups, such as migrant workers, refugees, and Indigenous communities like the Orang Asli. Due to language barriers, economic constraints, and cultural misunderstandings, these populations often have limited access to disaster preparedness resources. Their exclusion from formal disaster management frameworks increases their vulnerability in the face of hazards. However, the rich sociocultural diversity in Malaysia also presents opportunities to enhance disaster resilience. Local governments and NGOs can develop inclusive disaster management strategies by conducting community assessments that identify cultural strengths and vulnerabilities. For example, empowering community leaders, religious figures, and local NGOs to take part in disaster planning ensures that strategies are culturally relevant and more likely to gain community buy-in.Reference Shukla and MacKenzie16, Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and Sarkar22 Furthermore, incorporating traditional knowledge into national disaster management frameworks can lead to a more holistic approach to preparedness and risk reduction. By blending modern scientific techniques with traditional practices, policymakers can foster a more comprehensive and resilient disaster management system.
1.7. Gaps in the Literature
Despite Malaysia’s repeated experiences with hazards such as floods and landslides, much of the existing disaster management literature continues to focus on structural, economic, and technical interventions. These approaches, while essential, often treat sociocultural factors as secondary or peripheral, missing a critical opportunity to understand how the country’s diverse cultural landscape shapes disaster preparedness and recovery. In formal disaster management frameworks, cultural sensitivity is frequently an afterthought. Government-led initiatives, including early warning systems and infrastructure development (e.g., flood walls, drainage systems), often fail to account for the rich traditions and social networks that sustain many rural and Indigenous communities during crises. For instance, gotong-royong, the practice of communal cooperation central to Malay-Muslim culture remains underutilized in formal discussions, despite its significant contribution to local-level disaster response efforts.Reference Chua, Kadirvelu and Yasin12–Reference Samsuri, Abu-Bakar and Unjah14 Emerging research emphasizes the importance of grassroots resilience strategies, such as those seen in Thailand and the Philippines, where community-led disaster mitigation has outperformed top-down models in rural settings.Reference Iswanto, Gustina Zainal and Murodov55, Reference Marome and Shaw56 Applying these findings to Malaysia could provide actionable pathways for improving disaster management.Reference Abenir, Manzanero and Bollettino57, Reference Ryan, Johnston and Taylor58
Similarly, the traditional ecological knowledge of Indigenous groups like the Orang Asli is underrecognized and underutilized in national disaster planning, even though this knowledge offers valuable insights into local environmental risks. Urban areas face similar gaps. Informal community networks such as Chinese clan associations and Hindu temples are often instrumental in organizing grassroots disaster responses, yet they are seldom incorporated into formal disaster management mechanisms. The failure to acknowledge these sociocultural resources limits the effectiveness of national strategies. This study seeks to address these gaps by examining how sociocultural factors such as traditional knowledge, religious beliefs, social cohesion, and community trust affect disaster preparedness and response. By focusing on Malaysia’s diverse communities, this research offers a nuanced understanding of how these factors contribute to both resilience and vulnerability. Furthermore, the study will explore how cultural norms may sometimes act as barriers to effective disaster management, especially when fatalistic beliefs or restrictive gender roles impede proactive measures. Through this lens, the research aims to provide a more balanced and comprehensive approach to disaster management that integrates sociocultural factors into policy and practice.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Design
This study adopts a qualitative research design to explore the sociocultural factors that shape disaster response in Malaysia. The qualitative approach is particularly suited for this investigation due to the nuanced and culturally specific nature of the subject matter, requiring a deep understanding of how different communities experience and manage disasters such as floods, landslides, and monsoon storms. By focusing on the lived experiences of individuals from diverse cultural, religious, and social backgrounds, the study aims to uncover the intricate ways in which sociocultural dynamics influence disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.
The interviews were conducted by the primary researcher, Sheikh Kaman Abid, who has extensive experience in qualitative research and disaster management. The research team also included rest of the authors who brought expertise in disaster risk reduction, sociocultural studies, and policy analysis. This diverse team ensured a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach to data collection and analysis. Before conducting the interviews, participants were informed about the study’s objectives, the research team’s background, and the purpose of their involvement, ensuring transparency and ethical engagement.
The research incorporates a phenomenological perspective, which seeks to capture the essence of participants’ lived experiences and how they interpret cultural influences during disasters. This design allows for an in-depth exploration of how various sociocultural elements, including traditional knowledge, religious beliefs, gender roles, and social networks, affect disaster resilience. By emphasizing subjective experiences, the study provides a comprehensive view of how culture intersects with disaster management practices in Malaysia, offering valuable insights for policy development and community-based disaster preparedness strategies.
To ensure transparency and adherence to qualitative research standards, this study follows the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) 32-item checklist. A detailed breakdown of how each item is addressed in this study is provided in the Appendix A.
2.2. Participants
Participants were purposefully selected to ensure a representative mix of perspectives reflective of Malaysia’s diverse sociocultural landscape. They were approached via email and direct contact through local organizations. Among the 25 individuals invited, 10 declined participation, primarily due to time constraints or unwillingness to discuss disaster-related experiences. Therefore, the study included 15 participants from states frequently experiencing disasters, such as Kelantan, Terengganu, and Johor. Recruitment emphasized diversity across gender, age, ethnicity, and roles to capture a holistic view of disaster response dynamics.
2.2.1. Participant demographics
The study included 15 participants, purposefully selected to reflect Malaysia’s sociocultural diversity. The participants ranged in age from 28 to 65 years and included 9 males and 6 females. They represented multiple ethnic and religious backgrounds, including Malay Muslims, Chinese Buddhists, Indian Hindus, and Indigenous Christians. The sample encompassed participants from both urban centers and rural villages, ensuring perspectives from varying geographic contexts. The participants’ roles included local government officials, religious leaders, NGO workers, community health professionals, and residents with direct experience in disaster response. This diverse representation provided a comprehensive understanding of how cultural factors influence Malaysia’s disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.
2.3. Bias Mitigation
Given the cultural and religious sensitivities inherent to this study, several measures were implemented to minimize potential biases and ensure ethical research practices.
One key approach was culturally sensitive question design. Interview questions were carefully phrased to respect cultural and religious beliefs, avoiding language or topics that could be perceived as intrusive or biased. By framing questions in a way that acknowledged participants’ perspectives, the study aimed to foster an environment of trust and openness, encouraging authentic responses.
Additionally, the research team prioritized training and reflexivity to mitigate potential biases in data collection and interpretation. Researchers underwent training to deepen their understanding of Malaysia’s diverse cultural nuances and societal structures. Reflexivity was actively practiced throughout the study, requiring researchers to critically examine their own perspectives and assumptions to reduce subjective influences on data analysis.
Finally, informed consent procedures were adapted to align with participants’ cultural preferences. Before interviews, participants were thoroughly briefed on the study’s objectives, their rights, and the voluntary nature of their participation. Consent was obtained in forms that accommodated individual comfort levels, whether through verbal agreements or written signatures, ensuring ethical transparency while respecting cultural sensitivities.
By incorporating these measures, the study sought to uphold research integrity, minimize bias, and foster a respectful, inclusive approach to understanding sociocultural influences on disaster response in Malaysia.
2.4 Data Collection Method
Data were collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with selected participants. This method was chosen for its flexibility, allowing for a structured exploration of key themes while enabling participants to share their experiences in their own words. The semi-structured format ensured a balance between guided discussions and participant-led narratives, capturing both general patterns and personal insights.
Interviews were conducted face-to-face in familiar and comfortable settings, such as community centers and local government offices. For participants who were unable to meet in person, online platforms were used to facilitate accessibility. Each session lasted between 60 and 90 minutes, depending on participant availability and engagement. Discussions focused on understanding the influence of cultural and religious practices on disaster preparedness and response, examining the role of community networks and trust in disaster situations, and exploring gender-specific experiences and contributions to disaster recovery efforts.
To ensure clarity and comfort, interviews were conducted in English based on participant preference. All interviews were recorded with explicit consent, transcribed verbatim, and supplemented with field notes to provide additional contextual understanding during thematic analysis. Participants reviewed their transcripts, and no modifications were requested, ensuring that the data accurately reflected their perspectives and lived experiences.
2.5. Data Analysis
The data collected through the interviews were analyzed using manual thematic coding by 2 independent researchers to ensure reliability. Thematic analysis is a method designed to systematically identify patterns and themes within qualitative data. The process began with the transcription of all interviews to ensure accuracy and completeness, and analysis followed an inductive approach, where themes were derived from the data rather than predefined. Following transcription, open coding was applied, during which key phrases and concepts were identified, particularly those offering significant insights into the sociocultural factors influencing disaster response. In the preliminary coding stage, these codes were grouped into broader categories reflecting various sociocultural dimensions, such as religious practices, traditional knowledge, gender roles, and social cohesion.
These categories were further refined into overarching themes and sub-themes, such as “cultural practices in disaster response,” “gendered experiences during disasters,” and “the role of community networks.” These themes formed the core of the deeper analysis and interpretation of the data. A member-checking process was employed to ensure the validity of the findings, allowing participants to review the transcriptions and initial interpretations to confirm that their views had been accurately represented. Throughout the analysis, the researcher maintained a reflexive stance, recognizing and mitigating potential biases to ensure that personal views did not influence the interpretation of the data. This rigorous approach resulted in a rich, nuanced understanding of the sociocultural factors shaping disaster preparedness and response in Malaysia.
2.6. Ethical Considerations
Ethical integrity was a central concern of this study, and several measures were taken to ensure the ethical treatment of participants. Before the interviews, participants were fully informed about the purpose of the study, the data collection methods, and their rights, including the right to withdraw from the study at any point without consequence. Participants provided consent either in written or verbal form, based on their preference. All information provided by participants was kept confidential, and pseudonyms were used to report the findings to protect their identities. Identifiable data were securely stored, and access was restricted to the research team.
The researcher approached each interview with cultural sensitivity, considering the diverse backgrounds of the participants. Special care was taken to respect and honor their cultural practices and beliefs throughout the study, ensuring that participants felt comfortable and respected during the interviews.
This study was conducted as a qualitative, survey-based research project focused on sociocultural influences on disaster response. It did not involve medical experimentation, clinical procedures, or the collection of biomedical data. Under Malaysian research regulations, such studies do not require approval from a medical or bioethics committee. However, the research was conducted in accordance with institutional ethical guidelines and adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.
These ethical considerations ensured that participants’ rights and well-being were safeguarded and that the study maintained the highest standards of integrity.
3. Results
This section presents the findings from the analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with government officials, community leaders, NGO workers, and community health professionals, supplemented by participant observations. The analysis revealed 5 key themes: (1) the influence of religious and cultural practices, (2) community trust and social cohesion, (3) gender roles in disaster response, (4) generational knowledge and traditional practices, and (5) challenges in bridging cultural beliefs with formal disaster management strategies. Participants’ voices are quoted directly to offer deeper insights into their lived experiences, providing a nuanced understanding of how these sociocultural factors shape disaster preparedness and response in Malaysia.
3.1. Influence of Religious and Cultural Practices
Religious beliefs and cultural values were found to be central to how communities respond to disasters. Many participants shared that religious practices such as prayers, rituals, and religious leaders’ involvement were essential in preparing for and coping with disasters. These practices were often seen as protective measures that strengthened resilience.
One local leader explained how religious faith influenced decisions during a flood event:
“During the floods, many people refused to evacuate because they believed that prayers and faith in God would keep them safe. It can be challenging to convince them otherwise, even when the situation is critical.”
(Participant 1, Community Leader, Rural Area)A religious leader further elaborated on how the community comes together for collective prayer, especially during the monsoon season:
“We always hold special prayer sessions at the mosque whenever there’s a warning about floods. It brings people together and gives them strength. Many believe that through prayer, the disaster can be mitigated.” (Participant 2, Imam, Rural Mosque)
These findings illustrate that while religious practices offer emotional comfort and foster social unity, they can sometimes present challenges for formal evacuation efforts. This tension between faith and safety highlights the importance of integrating religious leaders into disaster planning and response strategies.
3.2. Community Trust and Social Cohesion
Another significant theme identified was the role of social cohesion and community trust in disaster response. Participants emphasized that strong community ties and mutual aid systems are crucial for effective disaster management. Many described how these bonds are deeply rooted in cultural traditions, with several participants specifically mentioning gotong-royong (mutual aid) as a key cultural practice.
A community health worker shared:
“When the floodwaters rise, the community steps in. We don’t wait for the government. Neighbors help each other with food, shelter, and emotional support. It’s something ingrained in our culture.”
(Participant 3, Community Health Worker, Remote Area)Similarly, an NGO worker noted the importance of social networks in reaching marginalized groups:
“In times of crisis, the official channels can take time to reach remote areas. But we see communities coming together, especially through informal networks. Social cohesion is what keeps people alive until more organized help arrives.”
(Participant 4, NGO Volunteer, Emergency Relief Program)These quotes underscore the importance of local social networks, which often drive the immediate response to disasters, particularly in areas where government assistance is delayed. Trust within the community enhances resilience and ensures faster recovery.
3.3. Gender Roles in Disaster Response
The findings revealed that gender plays a significant role in shaping disaster preparedness and response. Traditional gender roles often place women in caregiving positions, which can simultaneously empower and limit their participation in broader decision-making processes. In rural areas, women are frequently responsible for managing family resources during disasters but may not have a voice in community-level decisions.
A women’s group leader explained:
“During a flood, the men usually decide whether we should evacuate or stay. But it’s the women who take care of everything, gathering food, caring for the children, making sure the house is prepared. Our role is crucial, but we aren’t involved in making the big decisions.”
(Participant 5, Women’s Group Leader, Rural Community)Another participant emphasized the need for greater inclusion of women in disaster planning:
“We have a lot to contribute, but our voices aren’t always heard. If women were part of the planning, we could prevent a lot of issues because we understand the household needs better.”
(Participant 6, Resident, Urban Flood Zone)These findings suggest that although women play key roles in household-level disaster response, they are often excluded from broader community and formal decision-making processes. There is a clear need to empower women and involve them more directly in disaster planning and policy formation.
3.4. Generational Knowledge and Traditional Practices
Generational knowledge, particularly from older community members, was highlighted as an invaluable resource in predicting and responding to hazards. Many participants stressed the importance of traditional methods of flood prediction, survival techniques, and the transmission of these practices from elders to younger generations.
An elder in the community described traditional ways of predicting floods:
“We know when a flood is coming by looking at the animals or noticing changes in the river’s color. These are signs passed down from our ancestors. Nowadays, people rely on technology, but we trust what we’ve learned over generations.” (Participant 7, Orang Asli Elder, Traditional Community)
However, younger participants were more inclined to rely on modern technologies, creating a generational divide. One younger participant shared:
“I understand the value of traditional knowledge, but we have apps now that give accurate weather reports. I think we need both traditional and modern methods to be fully prepared.” (Participant 8, Young Resident, Urban Area)
The findings indicate that while traditional knowledge remains relevant, there is an increasing dependence on modern technology, particularly among younger generations. A balanced approach that integrates both traditional and modern methods may provide the most effective strategies for disaster preparedness.
3.5. Challenges in Bridging Cultural Beliefs and Formal Disaster Management
A recurring challenge expressed by participants was the difficulty in aligning cultural beliefs and practices with formal disaster management strategies. While cultural practices such as religious rituals and mutual aid are vital for community resilience, they can sometimes conflict with formal safety measures like evacuation orders or public health guidelines.
One government official noted:
“It’s not easy to convince people to leave their homes when they believe that a prayer or a ceremony will protect them. We have to work closely with community leaders to align religious beliefs with official safety protocols.” (Participant 9, Local Government Officer, Disaster Response Unit)
An NGO worker highlighted the importance of tailoring disaster relief efforts to respect cultural norms:
“You can’t impose a one-size-fits-all solution in a place as diverse as Malaysia. What works in one community may not be accepted in another, so we try to incorporate cultural understanding into our disaster response efforts.” (Participant 10, NGO Coordinator, Community Resilience Project)
These findings suggest that for disaster management strategies to be effective, they must be culturally sensitive and developed in collaboration with local communities. This approach ensures that cultural practices enhance rather than hinder disaster preparedness and recovery efforts.
4. Discussion
This section contextualizes the study’s findings within existing disaster response literature, emphasizing the sociocultural dimensions of disaster preparedness and recovery in Malaysia. The discussion highlights how religious beliefs, community cohesion, gender roles, and traditional knowledge shape disaster resilience, offering insights into both strengths and gaps in current disaster management strategies. The implications of these findings for policy and practice are examined, particularly the need for culturally adaptive disaster frameworks that integrate local knowledge and community-based resilience measures. Additionally, the discussion considers challenges in aligning cultural practices with formal disaster response mechanisms and offers recommendations for enhancing inclusivity and effectiveness in Malaysia’s disaster preparedness efforts.
4.1. The Role of Religious and Cultural Practices in Disaster Management
One of the most significant findings of this study is the central role that religious and cultural practices play in shaping community responses to disasters in Malaysia. This aligns with existing literature, which highlights how religious beliefs and cultural traditions provide emotional support and collective coping mechanisms during crises.Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and MdS21–Reference Nopriyasman, Asnan and Fauzi26 Research has shown that religious coping strategies, whether positive or negative, have a profound impact on mental health during disasters. For instance, studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic revealed that positive religious coping mechanisms, such as prayer, faith-based community support, and spiritual resilience, helped reduce anxiety and depression, while negative religious coping, including beliefs in divine punishment or helplessness, contributed to worsened mental health outcomes.Reference Oktari, Munadi and Idroes59 Further evidence from a study involving Muslim students in Kuala Lumpur found that stronger Islamic beliefs were linked to lower depression levels, with religious activities playing a critical role in mental well-being during crises.Reference Ting, Aw Yong and Tan60, Reference Sheikhi, Seyedin and Qanizadeh61
However, while religious practices foster emotional resilience and strengthen community unity, they can also create challenges for formal disaster response efforts. The findings indicate that in some cases, religious beliefs may conflict with evacuation orders or official safety protocols. Some individuals rely solely on faith for protection, even in life-threatening situations, which can delay emergency response measures or discourage participation in government-led preparedness initiatives. Such conflicts emphasize the need for stronger collaboration between disaster management agencies and religious leaders to ensure that disaster preparedness efforts align with local cultural and religious values.
Integrating religious institutions into disaster risk communication strategies can help bridge the gap between faith-based practices and formal safety measures. Engaging religious leaders in disaster awareness campaigns can increase public trust in evacuation protocols, medical aid, and emergency response efforts. Examples from Indonesia demonstrate the effectiveness of involving religious institutions in disaster education, where faith-based organizations play a key role in disseminating preparedness information and encouraging community-wide participation.Reference Sufri, Dwirahmadi and Phung62, Reference Chan, Roy and Lai63
By fostering closer partnerships between disaster agencies and religious communities, Malaysia can develop a more culturally responsive disaster management framework. Encouraging religious leaders to advocate for science-based disaster preparedness measures while respecting spiritual beliefs will help ensure that disaster response efforts remain both effective and culturally appropriate. Recognizing the intersection between faith, mental well-being, and risk perception can also contribute to more holistic disaster preparedness policies that address both psychosocial and practical challenges in disaster resilience.
4.2. The Importance of Community Trust and Social Cohesion
Social cohesion and trust are critical determinants of disaster resilience, shaping how communities mobilize resources, communicate risk, and coordinate recovery efforts. As discussed in Section 1.2, gotong-royong fosters collective action, enabling communities to organize localized disaster response efforts with or without formal government intervention. However, as highlighted in Section 3.2, not all groups have equal access to these support networks. Marginalized communities and urban populations often lack the same level of social cohesion found in rural areas, which can slow recovery efforts and deepen vulnerabilities.
To strengthen community-based disaster resilience, policymakers should consider expanding gotong-royong initiatives beyond rural settings and adapting them to urban and multicultural communities.Reference Noor Diyana, Fakhru’l-Razi and Aini64, Reference Lam and Chow65 In highly diverse or densely populated areas, social fragmentation can limit collective action, making it necessary to develop structured programs that encourage interethnic and interreligious collaboration in disaster preparedness.
Ensuring inclusivity in local response networks is also essential, particularly for migrant workers, refugees, and other vulnerable groups who may not have strong social ties within their communities. These populations often face barriers in accessing community-driven disaster relief, reinforcing existing inequalities in disaster response and recovery.
Developing government-supported trust-building initiatives can further enhance resilience. Programs such as interfaith dialogues and community-led disaster drills, modeled after successful initiatives in South Africa and Fiji, have demonstrated effectiveness in fostering collaboration and strengthening disaster response at the community level.Reference Tariq, Pathirage and Fernando35, Reference Chanza, Siyongwana and Williams-Bruinders36 By promoting regular engagement between different social groups, these initiatives can build long-term trust and cooperation, ensuring a more cohesive and inclusive disaster preparedness strategy.
By leveraging Malaysia’s strong traditions of communal cooperation while addressing gaps in inclusivity, disaster management strategies can become more effective, equitable, and resilient.Reference Erman, De Vries Robbe and Thies66, Reference Zaidi and Fordham67 Strengthening trust-based networks and ensuring that all communities, regardless of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or migration background, are included in disaster response frameworks will be key to enhancing long-term disaster resilience across Malaysia.
4.3. The Impact of Gender Roles on Disaster Preparedness and Response
The study’s findings highlight how gender roles shape disaster preparedness and response in Malaysia, reinforcing broader sociocultural expectations. Women play a central role at the household level, managing resources, ensuring family safety, and taking on caregiving responsibilities during crises. However, despite their critical contributions, they remain largely excluded from formal decision-making processes in disaster management.Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and Sarkar23–Reference Nopriyasman, Asnan and Fauzi26 This pattern is consistent with global trends, where women, despite being disproportionately affected by disasters, are underrepresented in disaster planning and policy formation.Reference Chanza, Siyongwana and Williams-Bruinders36
The gendered division of labor has significant implications for disaster management policies in Malaysia. While women are key actors in immediate response efforts, their absence from leadership and decision-making structures weakens the inclusivity and effectiveness of disaster planning. As noted by Hou and Wu, current disaster policies fail to fully address gender disparities in disaster risk reduction (DRR), often treating gender as an afterthought rather than a core policy consideration.Reference Hou and Wu68 Meaningful progress requires a more integrated gender approach, including the active participation of women and marginalized groups and stronger alignment with international frameworks for gender-responsive disaster governance. Research consistently shows that communities that empower women in disaster planning and decision-making develop more effective, inclusive, and sustainable preparedness strategies.Reference Soares and Sidun69, Reference Along, Ahmed and MacKee70
To strengthen community resilience, policymakers should prioritize gender-sensitive approaches that actively involve women in leadership roles, disaster risk reduction training, and resource allocation.Reference Brink, Falla and Boyd71 Global evidence suggests that disaster recovery and preparedness efforts are more effective when women are included in governance structures, leading to more responsive and equitable outcomes. Integrating gender-specific training programs into Malaysia’s national disaster frameworks, particularly in emergency response coordination, crisis leadership, and resource management, is essential to closing existing gaps.
As shown in Figure 2, increased female participation in disaster management is positively correlated with higher Community Resilience Scores across rural, semi-urban, and urban communities. The Community Resilience Score, as used in this study, measures the overall capacity of a community to anticipate, respond to, and recover from disasters. It integrates factors such as social cohesion, local knowledge, and institutional support to provide a comparative assessment across different community types. This relationship highlights the necessity of structural reforms that go beyond token representation, ensuring that women’s perspectives meaningfully influence disaster preparedness and response strategies.
Female participation in disaster management and community resilience.
Women’s exclusion from disaster governance reflects deep-rooted sociocultural norms that position them primarily as caregivers rather than decision-makers. Addressing these disparities requires more than just increasing female representation; it necessitates structural changes that embed gender-inclusive planning within disaster frameworks. Policies should remove systemic barriers, provide targeted capacity-building initiatives, and engage women’s organizations in disaster policy discussions.
Ultimately, empowering women through leadership opportunities and integrating their expertise into disaster planning will enhance Malaysia’s national resilience. Proven global models demonstrate that gender-sensitive disaster policies lead to more adaptive, participatory, and effective response systems. Strengthening these efforts will not only reduce gender inequalities but also unlock the full potential of women’s contributions to disaster management, ensuring more inclusive and sustainable disaster preparedness strategies for the future.
4.4. The Impact of Generational Knowledge on Disaster Preparedness
Generational knowledge and traditional practices have long been essential components of disaster preparedness in Malaysia. Elders in many communities possess valuable knowledge about predicting and responding to hazards, particularly floods, through ecological observation and traditional coping mechanisms. This knowledge, often passed down through generations, remains especially relevant in rural communities, where formal early warning systems may be limited. These findings align with previous research on the role of Indigenous and rural communities in disaster risk reduction.Reference Saifullah, Masud and Kari20, Reference Abid, Sulaiman and Wei24
However, a generational divide was observed, with younger participants increasingly relying on modern technology such as weather apps and government warning systems for disaster preparedness. While this shift reflects greater accessibility to digital tools, it also risks the erosion of traditional knowledge, which has historically contributed to community resilience. As modernization progresses, fewer younger individuals are learning or practicing these traditional techniques, reducing their long-term sustainability in disaster risk management.
Traditional knowledge remains a valuable yet underutilized resource in disaster preparedness. Participants highlighted how ecological signs, such as changes in river levels, cloud formations, and animal behavior, serve as early warning indicators of impending disasters. However, this knowledge is being increasingly overlooked in favor of modern technologies. The formal recognition and documentation of traditional knowledge within Malaysia’s disaster management frameworks is essential to ensuring its continued relevance and practical application.Reference Azhar, Md Akhir and Mohamad40
Encouraging intergenerational knowledge-sharing programs, where elders collaborate with younger generations, could help bridge this divide and enhance disaster preparedness measures. Successful models from countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia demonstrate that blending traditional and modern approaches strengthens community resilience.Reference Castañeda, Bronfman and Cisternas48
A comparative analysis of traditional disaster knowledge in the Asia-Pacific region offers valuable insights for enhancing Malaysia’s disaster management strategies. In Table 2, key Indigenous disaster knowledge practices from the Mentawai Islands (Indonesia), Indigenous Australians, and Pacific Islanders are shown, illustrating how these systems align with ecological and cultural contexts.
Traditional disaster knowledge across the Asia-Pacific regionReference Kamarudin, Rashid and Omar Chong19-Reference Sadeka, Mohamad and MdS21, Reference Abid, Sulaiman and Wei24-Reference Vijitharan28, Reference Cahyono, Wuryanta and Lastiantoro31
These comparative insights highlight the potential for integrating traditional knowledge into Malaysia’s disaster management policies. Australia’s success in incorporating Indigenous practices into bushfire management provides a model for how Malaysia could formalize the contributions of the Orang Asli and other Indigenous communities. Fostering cross-cultural knowledge-sharing initiatives could further strengthen national disaster resilience strategies.
The insights from this comparative analysis highlight the importance of integrating traditional knowledge into formal disaster management frameworks in Malaysia. The success of Australia’s Indigenous fire management techniques in national bushfire policies demonstrates how traditional ecological knowledge can complement modern disaster risk reduction efforts. Applying a similar approach in Malaysia by formally recognizing and engaging Orang Asli and other Indigenous communities could help bridge the gap between modern disaster forecasting methods and local environmental awareness.
To enhance Malaysia’s disaster resilience, policymakers should prioritize the integration of traditional knowledge into official disaster preparedness plans. Collaboration with Indigenous communities would ensure that place-based environmental knowledge is preserved and actively utilized in national risk reduction strategies. Additionally, structured intergenerational knowledge-sharing programs should be developed to facilitate the transfer of traditional disaster prediction techniques from elders to younger generations, ensuring that these valuable insights remain relevant in contemporary disaster management.
Moreover, strengthening community-driven disaster response initiatives can empower local leaders and increase community autonomy in disaster preparedness and recovery. Recognizing Indigenous practices within formal disaster policies would help institutionalize these knowledge systems, making them a core component of national resilience strategies rather than an informal or marginalized practice.
By adopting a hybrid approach that merges Indigenous expertise with scientific advancements, Malaysia can develop a more adaptive, inclusive, and sustainable disaster risk management framework. Integrating both traditional and modern strategies would enhance the effectiveness of disaster response, particularly in rural and Indigenous communities where formal early warning systems may be limited. A policy framework that values local wisdom alongside contemporary scientific tools will contribute to a more resilient and community-driven disaster management system in Malaysia.
4.5. Challenges in Integrating Cultural Beliefs with Formal Disaster Management
One recurring challenge this research identified is the difficulty of aligning formal disaster management strategies with cultural and religious practices. While cultural beliefs offer emotional and social support, they can also pose barriers to effective disaster management, particularly when they conflict with evacuation orders or public health guidelines. This challenge is not unique to Malaysia; studies have shown that disaster management strategies that overlook local cultural practices often face resistance.Reference Sufri, Dwirahmadi and Phung62
The findings suggest that disaster management authorities in Malaysia must adopt culturally adaptive approaches, working closely with community leaders, religious figures, and local stakeholders to ensure that disaster response efforts respect cultural norms. This could include creating culturally tailored disaster education programs, involving local leaders in decision-making, and aligning religious practices with safety measures. Successful examples from Indonesia demonstrate that such strategies can enhance compliance and community buy-in, making disaster management efforts more effective.Reference Chanza, Siyongwana and Williams-Bruinders36, Reference Salinger, D’Eramo and Turner37
4.6. Recommendations for Future Research and Practice
Based on the findings, several recommendations can be made to enhance disaster management strategies by integrating sociocultural factors into policies and practices. A critical priority is fostering greater community engagement and cultural integration in disaster preparedness. Disaster management authorities should work closely with religious leaders, cultural figures, and community organizations to ensure that disaster response efforts align with local traditions and beliefs. Informal social networks, such as gotong-royong, play a crucial role in community resilience and should be formally recognized in localized response plans. Governments and NGOs should also support community-led disaster initiatives, including mutual aid groups and neighborhood response teams, to strengthen grassroots preparedness and response efforts.
A gender-inclusive approach to disaster management is also essential. Women and marginalized groups should be actively involved in decision-making processes related to disaster preparedness and response. Despite their central role in household disaster preparedness, women are often excluded from leadership roles in formal disaster planning. Expanding leadership training programs focused on disaster risk reduction, resource management, and community mobilization can help address this gap. Additionally, policies should acknowledge gender-specific needs by improving access to child care support, health care services, and targeted communication strategies during emergencies.Reference Goniewicz, Burkle and Khorram-Manesh72
Another key area for improvement is the integration of traditional knowledge with modern disaster management approaches.Reference Goniewicz, Goniewicz and Burkle73 Many Indigenous communities in Malaysia possess valuable ecological knowledge that can serve as an early warning system for natural disasters. However, these insights are often overlooked in favor of technical and scientific methods. Future disaster management policies should facilitate intergenerational knowledge-sharing platforms that merge traditional environmental awareness with modern predictive tools. Codesigning disaster frameworks with Indigenous communities, such as the Orang Asli, can help bridge the gap between local wisdom and contemporary risk reduction strategies.
Ensuring inclusivity in disaster preparedness also requires greater attention to marginalized populations, including migrant workers, refugees, and low-income communities. Language barriers, economic constraints, and limited access to resources often leave these groups particularly vulnerable to disaster risks. Disaster management agencies should develop targeted outreach programs that address these challenges, while also appointing community liaisons to connect marginalized populations with formal disaster response systems.
Finally, multicultural disaster educationReference Goniewicz, Goniewicz and Włoszczak-Szubzda74 should be strengthened to reflect Malaysia’s diverse social fabric. Public awareness campaigns should be designed with multilingual and culturally sensitive messaging to ensure accessibility across different ethnic and religious groups. Community hubs, religious institutions, and local leaders can serve as key facilitators in disseminating disaster preparedness information in ways that resonate with specific cultural contexts.Reference Tong, Sainsbury and Craig75 By embedding these sociocultural insights into disaster management policies, Malaysia can build a more resilient and inclusive society capable of navigating future crises.
5. Limitations
While this study provides valuable insights into the sociocultural factors influencing disaster response in Malaysia, several limitations must be acknowledged.
First, as a qualitative study, the findings prioritize depth over breadth and are not fully generalizable to the entire Malaysian population. Although the sample included participants from diverse ethnic, gender, and social backgrounds, its size (15 participants) remains relatively small. This limitation may have resulted in certain perspectives, particularly those from less-represented communities (e.g., East Malaysia), being underrepresented.
Second, the study relied on semi-structured interviews and participant observations as primary data collection methods. While these approaches provided rich insights, they also introduced a degree of subjectivity. Participants’ responses were influenced by their personal experiences, and some may have been cautious about discussing sensitive topics, such as gender roles or religious beliefs, even with assurances of confidentiality. Cultural sensitivity in interview settings, while crucial, may have further influenced the openness of responses.
Third, the temporal context of the study presents another limitation. Sociocultural dynamics are fluid and evolve over time due to factors such as rapid urbanization, globalization, and technological advancements in disaster management. For instance, the increasing use of real-time disaster warning systems and shifts in religious or gender norms could influence future disaster preparedness strategies. A longitudinal approach could better capture these evolving trends.
Additionally, while this study focused on sociocultural dimensions, it did not fully explore their intersection with structural factors such as economic disparities, education access, or government policies. These structural dimensions likely play a significant role in shaping disaster resilience and preparedness, especially in marginalized communities. Future research should integrate these factors for a more comprehensive understanding.
Finally, the absence of quantitative data limits the ability to measure the prevalence of certain sociocultural factors systematically. While qualitative methods offer deep insights, incorporating a mixed-methods approach in future studies, combining qualitative interviews with large-scale surveys, would enhance the robustness and generalizability of findings.
Despite these limitations, the study provides an important foundation for understanding how cultural, religious, and social factors shape disaster preparedness and response in Malaysia. Future research should aim to build on these findings by incorporating a broader and more diverse sample, integrating structural and institutional perspectives, and using mixed method approaches to enhance empirical rigor.
6. Conclusions
This study explored the sociocultural factors shaping disaster response in Malaysia, focusing on the roles of religious beliefs, community cohesion, gender dynamics, and traditional knowledge in disaster preparedness and recovery. Using a qualitative, exploratory approach, the research captured the lived experiences of various stakeholders, including local leaders, government officials, and community members. The findings highlight how deeply embedded cultural practices and social structures influence community resilience, underscoring the need for disaster management strategies that are culturally sensitive and inclusive.
The study confirms that disaster response is not solely a technical process but is strongly shaped by social and cultural factors. While religious practices provide emotional support and reinforce social cohesion, they may also sometimes conflict with formal disaster response measures. Engaging religious leaders in disaster preparedness initiatives can help bridge this gap. Similarly, gotong-royong, as a form of collective community action, plays a crucial role in resilience but does not always extend to marginalized groups. Ensuring more inclusive community engagement is key to strengthening local disaster response capacity.
Gender roles also influence disaster preparedness, with women often taking on essential caregiving responsibilities but remaining underrepresented in decision-making. Greater inclusion of women in disaster planning can lead to more effective and equitable disaster management. Additionally, while traditional knowledge remains a valuable resource, its use is declining among younger generations who increasingly rely on modern technologies. A hybrid approach that integrates traditional wisdom with scientific methods would be the most effective way to enhance disaster preparedness.
Ultimately, disasters are not only environmental events but deeply social processes. In a diverse, multiethnic country like Malaysia, disaster management policies must be context-specific, adaptive, and inclusive. By formally integrating sociocultural factors into disaster frameworks, policymakers can develop strategies that align with the lived realities of communities and enhance resilience across the country.
As Malaysia continues to experience climate-related disasters, further research should examine how sociocultural factors intersect with institutional frameworks, economic conditions, and technological advancements. Future policies should not only incorporate cultural perspectives but also empower communities to actively shape disaster management strategies, ensuring that resilience-building efforts are both locally grounded and nationally coordinated.
Supplementary material
The supplementary material for this article can be found at http://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2025.68.
Data availability statement
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to extend their appreciation to King Saud University for funding this work through the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD2025R649), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Funding statement
This research received no external funding.
Competing interests
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethical standard
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Participants provided consent either in written or verbal form, based on their preference.
