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GROUP MINDS IN ANCIENT GREEK HISTORIOGRAPHY AND THE ANCIENT GREEK NOVEL: HERODIAN'S HISTORY AND CHARITON'S CALLIRHOE
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 March 2024
Abstract
This article explores Herodian's History of the Roman Empire alongside Chariton's novel Callirhoe with an eye to how the minds of collective entities are represented and function in the two narratives. It argues that Chariton, unlike Herodian, elaborates on the diversity of emotions that characterizes a specific collective experience and has groups use direct speech throughout. These choices add vividness to the narrative and intensify the fictional sensationalism and dramatic character of the novel. It also shows that, whereas collectives in Chariton's narrative are primarily designed to highlight a specific characteristic of a hero, dramatize an event and enhance suspense, in Herodian's historiography they are an integral part of the plot and central to his historical analysis of contemporary political and social world. This article offers a new analytical tool geared towards the development of a poetics of the collective in ancient narrative as well as a poetics of fictional and factual narration in antiquity, and advances our understanding of the complex relationship between ancient historiography and novelistic writing.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association
Footnotes
*
I thank CQ's readers for useful criticism. This article has been supported by the DFG. In its final stages, it has been funded by the European Union (ERC, GROUPMINDS, 101115022). Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Council Executive Agency. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them.
The original version of this article was published with the incorrect title. A notice detailing this has been published and the error has been rectified in the online and print PDF and HTML copies.
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13 See M. Fludernik, ‘Collective minds in fact and fiction: Intermental thought and group consciousness in early modern narrative’, Poetics Today 35 (2014), 689–730; M. Fludernik, ‘The politics of we-narration: the one vs. the many’, Style 54 (2020), 98–110; Alders and von Contzen (n. 2); Grethlein (n. 3); F. Budelmann, ‘Group minds in classical Athens? Chorus and dēmos as case studies of collective cognition’, in M. Anderson, D. Cairns and M. Sprevak (edd.), Distributed Cognition in Classical Antiquity (Edinburgh, 2019), 190–208; G. Shams, Social Minds in Drama (Berlin, 2020). Besides Grethlein, only Budelmann focusses on antiquity by exploring the epistemological and ontological status of the chorus and the dēmos as group minds in classical Athens.
14 See M. Fludernik, ‘The many in action and thought: towards a poetics of the collective in narrative’, Narrative 25 (2017), 139–63.
15 See W. Rösler, ‘Fiktionalität in der Antike’, in T. Klauk and T. Köppe (edd.), Fiktionalität: Ein interdisziplinäres Handbuch (Berlin and Boston, 2014), 363–84; S. Halliwell, ‘Fiction’, in P. Destrée and P. Murray (edd.), A Companion to Ancient Aesthetics (Malden, MA and Oxford, 2015), 341–53; B. Zimmermann, ‘Der Macht des Wortes ausgesetzt, oder: Die Entdeckung der Fiktionalität in der griechischen Literatur der archaischen und klassischen Zeit’, in M. Fludernik, N. Falkenhayner and J. Steiner (edd.), Faktuales und fiktionales Erzählen: Interdisziplinäre Perspektiven (Würzburg, 2015), 47–57; K. De Temmerman and K. Demoen (edd.), Writing Biography in Greece and Rome: Narrative Technique and Fictionalization (Cambridge, 2016).
16 See G. Genette, ‘Fictional narrative, factual narrative’, Poetics Today 11 (1990), 755–74; Cohn (n. 1); Fludernik (n. 5); M. Fludernik and M.-L. Ryan (edd.), Narrative Factuality: A Handbook (Berlin, 2020); M. Fludernik. and H.S. Nielsen (edd.), Travelling Concepts: New Fictionality Studies (Berlin, 2020).
17 I use throughout the translation of C.R. Whittaker, Herodian. History of the Empire, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA, 1969–70) for Herodian's text, slightly adapted.
18 1.2.3–5; 1.4.5; 1.7.1–4; 1.7.5–6; 1.12.5; 1.13.3–5; 1.14.7; 2.2.3–5; 2.4.1; 2.4.4–5; 3.8.3; 4.7.4; 4.13.7; 5.8.1–2; 8.5.8; 8.6.1–4.
19 1.10.7; 1.12.5; 2.2.3–5; 2.2.9–10; 2.4.4–5; 2.6.13; 2.8.6; 3.5.2; 8.6.1–4.
20 3.8.3; 3.15.5; 4.13.7.
21 2.2.4; 2.2.9; 2.3.3; 2.7.3; 4.4.8; 5.5.2; 6.9.4–5; 8.8.7.
22 See 4.3.2–4; 7.10.1.
23 1.10.4: Maternus on the Roman people; 2.1.9: Laetus and Eclectus on the Senate and the Roman people; 2.6.12: Julianus on the Roman people.
24 1.6.4–6: Pompeianus; 7.5.5–6: a young man.
25 Cf. 2.14.1; 3.8.3; 4.11.3; 5.6.8.
26 For direct descriptions of mentalities, see 1.1.10; 1.1.16; 1.2.1; 1.2.4; 1.5.6; 1.14.3; 2.2.8; 2.3.9–10; 2.5.4; 2.5.7; 3.3.7; 4.3.11; 7.3.3; 8.4.1; 8.6.7–8. On action descriptions, see 1.1.12; 1.1.16; 1.5.3; 3.2.14–17; 3.8.5; 4.1.9; 4.1.12. Cf. thought reports (8.6.5), statements about other people's views of collective minds (1.1.14: Callirhoe's nurse on the city; 8.7.5–6: Hermocrates on the people), individuals who function as spokesmen of a group mind (8.6.3) or assume in their speeches the communal mind through a we-language (1.2.1–4; 1.10.1–8).
27 Throughout I use the translation of G. Goold (ed.), Chariton. Callirhoe (Cambridge, MA, 1995), slightly adapted at some points.
28 6.6.1; 8.5.8. On this point, see M. Kaimio, ‘How to enjoy a Greek novel: Chariton guiding his audience’, Arctos 30 (1996), 49–73, at 57–8.
29 See M. Fusillo, ‘The conflict of emotions: a topos in the Greek erotic novel’, in S. Swain (ed.), Oxford Readings in the Greek Novel (Oxford, 1999), 60–82. Equally important for an understanding of psychology in the Greek novels are B. Kytzler, ‘Der Regenbogen der Gefühle: zum Kontrast der Empfindungen im antiken Roman’, Scholia 12 (2003), 69–81; I. Repath, ‘Emotional conflict and Platonic psychology in the Greek novel’, in J.R. Morgan and M. Jones (edd.), Philosophical Presences in the Ancient Novel (Groningen, 2007), 53–84; M. Cummings, ‘The interaction of emotions in the Greek novels’, in M.P. Futre Pinheiro, D. Konstan and B.D. MacQueen (edd.), Cultural Crossroads in the Ancient Novel (Berlin and Boston, 2018), 315–25; T. Whitmarsh, ‘Emotions and narrativity in the Greek romance’, in M. de Bakker, B. van den Berg and J. Klooster (edd.), Emotions and Narrative in Ancient Literature and Beyond (Leiden, 2022), 633–49.
30 5.3.3; 5.8.6–7; 6.1.1–5; 6.2.1–2; 7.3.11; 8.1.11; 8.2.11; 8.7.3–8; 8.8.2. On speech in Chariton, see K. De Temmerman, ‘Chariton’, in M. de Bakker and I. de Jong (edd.), Speech in Ancient Greek Literature (Leiden, 2022), 635–53.
31 M. de Bakker, ‘Herodotus’, in M. de Bakker and I. de Jong (edd.), Speech in Ancient Greek Literature (Leiden, 2022), 197–222, at 201–2. See also Thucydides in T. Rood, ‘Thucydides’, in M. de Bakker and I. De Jong (edd.), Speech in Ancient Greek Literature (Leiden, 2022), 223–45, at 230, 232.
32 See L. Pitcher, ‘Cassius Dio’, in M. de Bakker and I. de Jong (edd.), Speech in Ancient Greek Literature (Leiden, 2022), 309–28, at 317–18, who also highlights Dio's difference from Herodian.
33 L. Pitcher, ‘Herodian’, in M. de Bakker and I. de Jong (edd.), Speech in Ancient Greek Literature (Leiden, 2022), 329–49, at 335 notes the exception. The use of direct discourse, following a record of speech acts (Pitcher, ibid. 335), to convey the words of Commodus’ flatterers serves to accentuate the powerful effect on Commodus and explain his sudden interest in returning home (1.6.3 vs 1.6.1). A plausible explanation for this unique use of oratio recta might be that Herodian, an author who has a penchant for intratextual comparisons, wants these specific words to be read in contrast to Pompeianus’ direct speech, which follows at 1.6.4–6, thus creating a lively mirroring of the dilemma which Commodus faces—a kind of ‘antiphonal speeches’. See the similar way in which the two speeches are introduced (1.6.2 ~ 1.6.4) and the similar way in which Herodian describes their opposing effects (1.6.2–3 ~ 1.6.7).
34 Chariton tends to withhold information about the physical appearance of the protagonists apart from the fact that they are beautiful. See K. De Temmerman, ‘Blushing beauty: characterizing blushes in Chariton's Callirhoe’, Mnemosyne 60 (2007), 235–52. Contrast Longus 1.2.3; 1.5.1–4; 1.24.1–3; 2.3.1; 2.4.1; 4.13.2; 4.17.5; 4.31.1; 4.32.1; Xen. Ephes. 1.1.2; 1.1.5–6; 1.13.3; 2.14.2; 3.3.5; Ach. Tat. 1.1.7–8; 1.3.4; 1.4.2–4; 1.19.1–2; 2.4.5; 2.6.1; 2.11.3–4; 3.7.3–4; 3.9.2; 5.13.1–2; 6.6.1; 8.13.1–2; Heliod. Aeth. 1.2; 1.21.3; 2.35.1; 3.3.4–5; 3.4.1–5; 4.1.2; 4.5.5; 7.2.1; 7.10.4; 10.7.3–5; 10.9.3; 10.25.1. On this technique, see K. De Temmerman, Crafting Characters: Heroes and Heroines in the Ancient Greek Novel (Oxford, 2014), 30, 31, 35, 39–40, 41, 192.
35 Pitcher (n. 33), 338. The only exception, according to Pitcher (n. 33), 336, is the anonymous man dressed as a philosopher to Commodus (1.9.4).
36 Pitcher (n. 33), 342.
37 See Goold (n. 27), 15.
38 See the wedding of Chaereas and Callirhoe (1.1.11–13; 1.1.16); Callirhoe's Scheintod (1.5.1–3); the wedding of Dionysius and Callirhoe (3.2.15–17; 3.8.5); the revelation of truth about Callirhoe's life before the Syracusan assembly (3.4.1; 3.4.4–5; 3.4.10; 3.4.15–17); the departure from Syracuse of the mission for Callirhoe's return (3.5.3); the entrance of Callirhoe and Dionysius in the Great King's empire (5.1.8); the entrance of Callirhoe and Dionysius in Babylon (5.3.6–7); the trial in Babylon (5.4.1–4); the revelation that Chaereas is alive (5.8.1–3); the second planned trial in Babylon (6.1.1–5; 6.2.1–2); reunion (8.1.11–12); homecoming (8.6.5–11); the final appearance of Chaereas and Callirhoe before the Syracusan people (8.7.1–3).
39 On the association of love with politics here, which reflects a basic theme of the novelistic plot, see M. Baumbach and M. Sanz Morales, Chariton von Aphrodisias, Kallirhoe: Kommentar zu den Büchern 1–4 (Heidelberg, 2021), 81 ad loc.
40 T. Oppeneer, ‘The rhetoric of democracy in Second Sophistic literature’ (Diss., Ghent University, 2018), 215.
41 On this theme, see T. Whitmarsh, Narrative and Identity in the Ancient Greek Novel (Cambridge, 2011), 32–40.
42 On Callirhoe's beauty, see 4.1.9: ‘In fact not a single one there could withstand her dazzling beauty. Some turned their heads away as though the sun's rays shone into their eyes, and others actually knelt in homage; even children were affected’. Cf. 2.2.2–3; 2.2.8; 2.3.9–10; 2.5.4; 3.2.14–17; 5.1.8; 5.5.8–9; 8.6.10–11. Notable is that the praise of Callirhoe's beauty is universal, bestowed by different collectives in all cities (Syracuse; Miletus; Babylon). On the beauty of both protagonists, see 8.1.11; and on Chaereas’ andreia, see 7.3.6. See R.S. Ascough, ‘Narrative technique and generic designation: crowd scenes in Luke-Acts and in Chariton’, Catholic Biblical Quarterly 58 (1996), 69–81, at 76–7 on the crowds revealing the popularity of the protagonists.
43 See Kaimio (n. 28), 59, 68, 72.
44 See Kaimio (n. 28).
45 Cf. 2.5.7; 3.3.7; 3.4.2; 3.4.10; 4.1.12; 4.2.13; 4.3.11.
46 At 3.4.4 ‘the citizens sat in suspense’ (ὁ μὲν οὖν δῆμος μετέωρος καθῆστο), waiting for Chaereas’ talk about Callirhoe's (seeming) death. On a similar effect in Heliodorus, see Grethlein, ‘Social minds’ (n. 3), 131–3. Cf. S. Montiglio, ‘Suspense in the ancient Greek novel’, in I.M. Konstantakos and V. Liotsakis (edd.), Suspense in Ancient Greek Literature (Berlin and Boston, 2021), 349–77, at 351–5 on Chariton.
47 Cf. 8.7.3–8 and 8.8.2 on the same kind of suspense: internal audience urge Chaereas to tell them everything about his adventures from the beginning. External audience know of what happened, but they might still feel agony about how Chaereas will present his own version of the story as well as how the novel will end. Whitmarsh (n. 41), 65–6 notes that the internal audience's commentary reveals the dynamic character of the act of narration and creation of meaning of Chariton's story.
48 2.2.9–10; 2.3.3; 2.6.11; 4.14.1–3; 7.10.2–5; 8.8.7.
49 1.7.1–4; 2.14.1–2; 3.8.3; 4.1.3.
50 2.5.1; 5.2.4–6; 6.8.3–4.
51 2.5.8–9; 5.8.4–8; 8.5.8–9; 8.8.3–7.
52 On the role of groups at these crucial stages of an emperor's career, see C.S. Chrysanthou, Reconfiguring the Imperial Past: Narrative Patterns and Historical Interpretation in Herodian's History of the Empire (Leiden, 2022).
53 Kaimio (n. 28), 62 notes Thucydides as an intertext in Chariton. In Xenophon of Ephesus’ novel Anthia and Habrocomes the scene of departure from Ephesus is signalled dramatically as well, but the emphasis lies on children and parents rather than any groups of bystanders.
54 S. Hornblower, A Commentary on Thucydides: Volume III. Books 5.25–8.109 (Oxford, 2008), 382 ad loc.
55 On assemblies in Chariton's novel as reflective of the first/early second-century assembly politics, see Oppeneer (n. 40), 212–23. Cf. O.M. van Nijf, ‘Affective politics: the emotional regime in the imperial Greek city’, in A. Chaniotis and P. Ducrey (edd.), Unveiling Emotions II: Emotions in Greece and Rome (Stuttgart, 2014), 351–68, at 358–9, on Chariton's first assembly scene as evidence that the imperial Greek city was conceived as emotional community.
56 See Hidber (n. 7), 192; G. Andrews, ‘Rethinking the third century ce: Contemporary historiography and political narrative’ (Diss., Cambridge, 2019), 132–3.
57 See M. Zimmermann, Kaiser und Ereignis: Studien zum Geschichtswerk Herodians (Munich, 1999), 30–1; Hidber (n. 7), 234–5.
58 Aristid. Or. 26.29 Behr. See A.M. Kemezis, Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian (Cambridge, 2014), 234–5, to whom I owe the reference to Aelius Aristides.
59 See C.S. Chrysanthou, ‘Herodian and Cassius Dio: a study of Herodian's compositional devices’, GRBS 60 (2020), 621–51 with further bibliography on Herodian's knowledge of Dio's work.
60 Kemezis (n. 58), 235.
61 On the interpretative pattern of opposition between civilians and soldiers in the reigns of Pertinax and Julianus, see D. Motta, ‘The demos in Herodian’, in A. Galimberti (ed.), Herodian's World: Empire and Emperors in the III Century (Leiden and Boston, 2022), 173–201, at 180–3.
62 6.8.3–6; 6.9.4–5; 7.3.4–6; 7.7.1–2.
63 See Motta (n. 61), 175–9.
64 Cf. 7.7.1; 7.8.6 on the fickleness of the Roman people.
65 Cf. 1.1.16.
66 Longus 4.33.3–4; Xen. Ephes. 5.13.1; Heliod. Aeth. 10.38.3–4.
67 Kaimio (n. 28), 62.
68 e.g. the supporters of Chaereas argue that he did not desert his bride, but the reader already knows of his jealousy and subsequent ‘cruel’ treatment of her. Likewise, the statement of Dionysius’ supporters that Dionysius rescued Callirhoe from the pirate band is wrong. Moreover, Dionysius and Callirhoe do not have a child in common. Cf. S. Schwartz, From Bedroom to Courtroom: Law and Justice in the Greek Novel (Groningen, 2016), 84, who notes that the divided opinions of the Babylonian people reflect the main arguments of Chaereas and Dionysius (5.8.4–6).
69 On crowds in Chariton as listeners of important stories, see Ascough (n. 42), 74–5.
70 Shifting collective minds in Chariton's novel are quite different from those in Herodian. They denote the co-existence of changing, and often opposing, emotional states within a specific group. See 3.4.1; 3.4.15; 5.8.2–3. A shift in a group can be noticed at 1.5.3–6, where one can sense the change of heart of the crowd at the trial of Chaereas for murdering his wife.
71 Cf. 7.3.10 on a group encouraging military action as a reaction to Chaereas’ military speech. See also 8.2.11–14.
72 See Longus 2.2.1–2; 4.33.3–4 (in both instances there is a division between men and women); Xen. Ephes. 1.1.3; 1.2.8 (direct speech is being used throughout); 2.2.4; Heliod. Aeth. 2.27.1; 3.3.8; 7.7.7; 7.8.2; 10.9.1; 10.9.4; 10.30.5; 10.30.7.
73 ‘Often when seeing her at the shrine, the Ephesians worshiped her as Artemis, so also at the sight of her on this occasion the crowd cheered; the opinions of the spectators were various, some in their astonishment declaring that she was the goddess herself, others that she was someone else fashioned by the goddess, but all of them prayed, bowed down, and congratulated her parents, and the universal cry among all the spectators was “Anthia the beautiful!”’, transl. J. Henderson (ed.), Longus: Daphnis and Chloe; Xenophon of Ephesus: Anthia and Habrocomes (Cambridge, MA, 2009). Cf. Xen. Ephes. 1.12.1; Heliod. Aeth. 3.4.8.
74 Transl. Henderson (n. 73) for Longus' novel. Cf. Longus 1.32.3; 2.29.3; 4.15.1–4; 4.38.4.
75 J.R. Morgan, ‘Heliodorus: An Ethiopian story’, in B.P. Reardon (ed.), Collected Ancient Greek Novels (Berkeley, 1989), 349–588, at 349–52. Throughout I use Morgan's translation for Heliodorus. Dramatic scenes in Heliodorus featuring collectives who do not play any role in the action itself also include 4.3.2 (‘The whole of Greece thrilled with emotion at this dramatic turn of events and prayed for Theagenes to win as fervently as if each man were running the race himself’); 4.3.2–4 (with Grethlein, ‘Social minds’ [n. 3], 130–2); 4.19.5; 5.11.1–2; 5.33.4; 7.7.4; 7.8.3–5; 7.9.1; 8.9.15; 8.9.19; 9.22.1; 9.27.1; 10.9.5; 10.15.1; 10.29.1; 10.30.1; 10.30.5; 10.35.2; 10.41.3. Often groups in Heliodorus, like in Chariton, mirror or reinforce the reactions of individuals (e.g. 10.16.3: ‘For a moment he [i.e. Hydaspes] stood and looked at his people, whose emotions were no less than his own and who were weeping from a mixture of delight and pity at destiny's stage management of human life’).
76 Cf. Longus 2.17.1; 4.23.1; 4.25.2 (with a comic effect); Xen. Ephes. 1.11.1; 3.7.1 (with varied emotions depicted); 5.4.11 (with an anticipatory force); Ach. Tat. 1.13.1; 8.3.1; 8.14.2; 8.14.6.
77 Individuals appear to be sensitive to other people's perception of them and social/public minds more generally in Chariton's novel as well: 1.1.8; 1.1.9; 2.4.1; 2.4.4; 2.9.2–4; 5.5.3–4; 6.9.5; 7.6.4; 9.5.3.
78 3.4.8; 4.3.1–2; 7.6.4; 7.8.2; 10.4.6.
79 See Hornblower (n. 54), 54, 64 ad loc.
80 Ach. Tat. 7.14.1: ‘I was thus reprieved from the question, and the court had broken up: I was surrounded by a noisy mob, some expressing their pity, some calling upon the gods to punish me, others questioning me about my story’. Cf. Heliod. Aeth. 8.9.13.
81 Xen. Ephes. 1.13.1–5; 3.8.3–5; 3.9.1; 3.9.8; 3.11.1; 3.12.2; 4.1.1–5; 5.2.1; 5.2.6–7; 5.4.3; Ach. Tat. 2.18.2–5; 3.9.2–3; 3.13; 3.19; 8.16.1–3; Heliod. Aeth. 1.32–3; 5.24–7; 5.33.2.
82 See Longus 2.15.1–3; 2.17.2–3; 2.19.2–3; 2.20.3; 2.21.1; 3.1–2; Xen. Ephes. 3.12.6; Heliod. Aeth. 1.13–14; 1.17.6; 1.21.1; 1.23.1; 1.32–3; 2.27.1; 4.21.1–3; 7.5.1–2; 9.3–27; 10.7.1; 10.7.6; 10.17; 10.30.7.
83 See E. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (London, 1927) on ‘flat’ and ‘round’ characters.
84 See E. Visvardi, Emotion in Action: Thucydides and the Tragic Chorus (Leiden, 2015); Budelmann (n. 13).
85 Cohn (n. 1), 121.
86 Langland, E., Society in the Novel (Chapel Hill, NC, 1984), 167Google Scholar.
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