Redistricting, race, and machine learning

As national-level politics increasingly fails to address racial inequities in voter access, representation, and policy outcomes, state governments have become the frontlines for political conflict and policy advancement on matters of race. State legislatures are responsible for setting electoral rules in their states, and for creating racial majority-minority districts. Most commonly, the debates over majority-minority districts center around the plausibility of corrective measures and the degree to which racial disparities can be identified – which is not always possible. State governments vary widely in whether they collect any information on race (Clark, Curiel, and Steelman Reference Clark, Curiel and Steelman2022; Imai and Khanna Reference Imai and Khanna2016). Within the context of redistricting, these questions on race can become so severe that state Supreme Courts, such as North Carolina’s, can rule that such racial gerrymandering “impose[s] limits on these legislators’ authority to initiate the process of amending the constitution under these circumstances” given that state legislative maps are “unconstitutionally racially gerrymandered.”Footnote ¹ Yet such profound decisions on the basis of representation, governance, and ensuing state policies face obstacles in the “race-blind” approach often taken by most data-collecting agencies, which severely limits the ability to ascertain whether racial disparities exist and, if so, how to rectify them. States such as North Carolina can only make such decisions due to long-standing legal requirements on the collection of race for voter data as part of currently existing Voting Rights Act (VRA) requirements.Footnote ²

Therefore, experts in political science, policy, and public health have begun to utilize a diverse set of tools to make up for shortcomings within state data sources where race is not recorded, such as state voter files. Amidst the effort to identify racial disparities, research within the field increasingly makes use of Bayesian Improved Surname and Geocoding (BISG) to impute missing racial data. Although self-reported race data is preferable, BISG methodology provides substantial and significant gains over similar Ecological Inference (EI) methods (Imai and Khanna Reference Imai and Khanna2016; King Reference King1997) and is earning widespread use from the academic community (Decter-Frain et al. Reference Decter-Frain, Sachdeva, Collingwood, Burke, Murayama, Barreto, Henderson, Wood and Zingher2022). Additionally, courts have likewise accepted the estimation of race using surname alone (Barreto et al. Reference Barreto, Cohen, Collingwood, Dunn and Waknin2022), with state Supreme Courts, such as Wisconsin’s,Footnote ³ accepting BISG in vote dilution and civil rights litigation.

Despite the clear improvements in BISG in estimating the first stage of EI issues as related to racial vote preferences, there remains room for improvement. Especially in research areas where even slight error can lead to perverse outcomes, such as in redistricting (Hicks et al. Reference Hicks, Klarner, McKee and Smith2018), any and all attempts to minimize error are critical. BISG is not a perfect method, with the potential for error especially where the geographic component is heterogeneous, is too aggregated a level, or where a lack of distinct naming patterns exists (Clark, Curiel, and Steelman Reference Clark, Curiel and Steelman2022; DeLuca and Curiel Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022; Voicu Reference Voicu2018). One potential innovation in the application of BISG is development in machine learning (ML) methods. ML can identify characteristics at the individual character (i.e., letter) level of surname, first, and middle names to improve upon the static surname dictionary employed by traditional BISG estimation (Chaturvedi and Chaturvedi Reference Chaturvedi and Chaturvedi2020; Decter-Frain Reference Decter-Frain2022; Voicu Reference Voicu2018). Although promising, these ML modifications have not been robustly tested in a manner to overcome two major shortcomings. First, previous validation methods rely upon false-negative/positive rates that rely upon pluralistic assignment of race – a method that necessarily runs against best practices in ecological inference by exacerbating the specification error via the inflation component (Palmquist Reference Palmquist1993; Voss Reference Voss, King, Rosen and Tanner2004). Second, ML methods have not been applied to a context as stringent as voting rights and vote dilution as related to redistricting, where a strict one-person one-vote standard exists. Within the context of redistricting and racial gerrymanders, even a minor error can lead to the worst outcome where districts pack a near majority of racial minorities into a racially polarized district such that they are denied descriptive and substantive representation (Grose Reference Grose2011; Hicks et al. Reference Hicks, Klarner, McKee and Smith2018). If ML-modified BISG meets redistricting standards, we can have increased confidence in its application broadly and evidence that validates its use within state and local policy issues.

Therefore, we evaluate the accuracy of ML methods in predicting race relative to traditional BISG. We use the Zest AI Race Predictor (ZRP) ML algorithm developed by Zest AI (Matthews et al. Reference Matthews, Li, ChristienWilliams and Budzik2022) and compare with BISG estimates used at the same geographic level. We evaluate the relative performance within two applications. First, we compare their overall accuracy against the self-reported race data in voter files from Georgia and North Carolina at the congressional district level. We benchmark the performance of ZRP to BISG in the context of redistricting by replicating the analysis in DeLuca and Curiel (Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022) using both ZRP and BISG and comparing the results, as stratified by two different race assignment methods – pluralistic and probabilistic. Second, we apply and validate these competing racial estimation methods to state assembly districts within Milwaukee county, Wisconsin. These state assembly districts instigated an intraparty Democratic fight as African American state assembly members argued that the Democratic map “would make it harder for Black and Latino voters to elect the candidates they want.”Footnote ⁴ Though Wisconsin lacks data on race within their voter file, we use the next best alternative in the form of aggregated L2 race estimates acquired from Redistricting Data Hub (2022) in our validation.

In our first validation on congressional redistricting within North Carolina and Georgia, we find that ZRP demonstrates between 6% and 10% improvements at classifying individuals in most cases relative to traditional BISG. When aggregating to the precinct and district level, ZRP also tends to outperform BISG, though the relative reduction in errors varies significantly by state and across racial groups, given local political geographies. In both states, ZRP performs at least as well as BISG. ZRP shows the most substantive improvements over BISG in Georgia, particularly for estimating the district-level Black share of the electorate. In North Carolina, where BISG already performs very well at estimating precinct- and district-level demographics, ZRP performs just as well or only slightly reduces the already-low error rates. And across the states, ZRP tends to reduce error rates the most when using plurality assignment or when estimating the district-level Black share of the electorate.

Our second validation in analyzing the competing state assembly maps within Wisconsin demonstrates substantive and decisive gains for ZRP’s ML-modified BISG. Where both ZRP and BISG demonstrate stark differences in the degree to which the Wisconsin Republican Party map packs non-White voters into fewer districts, ZRP reduces the error relative to traditional BISG by at least half and by orders of magnitude in the majority-minority districts of interest. These findings suggest ZRP is far less prone to accidentally “cracking” racial minorities into districts where they lack the ability to elect a member of their preferred race. These results offer an important validation of ML-modified BISG as related to redistricting and, more importantly, to the research of race across states and localities within the United States more broadly. Especially in the study of local governments where traditional EI or even BISG might lead to substantial error (Barreto et al. Reference Barreto, Cohen, Collingwood, Dunn and Waknin2022) or when the pluralistic assignment of race might be absolutely necessary, ML-modified BISG can offer substantial gains for those studying state and local politics.Footnote ⁵

BISG: Benefits and remaining pitfalls

Originally, BISG was developed in the field of public health in order to address racial disparities in health care (Elliott et al. Reference Elliott, Fremont, Morrison, Pantoja and Lurie2008). In recent years, however, political scientists have adopted BISG in order to estimate racial classifications of individuals and groups in a number of different political contexts, including redistricting (DeLuca and Curiel Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022; Kenny et al. Reference Kenny, Kuriwaki, McCartan, Evan T. R., Simko and Imai2021).

BISG uses an individual’s surname and location – typically a census block, block group, tract, zip code, or county (Clark, Curiel, and Steelman Reference Clark, Curiel and Steelman2022) – to compute a conditional probability of the individual being of a particular race. Applying Bayes theorem, one can calculate the conditional probability of individual $ i $ , with surname $ s $ and geocoded location $ g $ , being race $ r $ as:

$$ P\left({R}_i=r|{S}_i=s,{G}_i=g\right)=\frac{P\left({G}_i=g|{R}_i=r\right)P\left({R}_i=r|{S}_i=s\right)}{\sum_{i=1}^nP\left({G}_i=g|{R}_i=r\right)P\left({R}_i=r|{S}_i=s\right)}. $$

Typically, increased precision in geography improves race estimation accuracy (Clark, Curiel, and Steelman Reference Clark, Curiel and Steelman2022), and there is variation in how well BISG performs for different racial groups and across states (Decter-Frain Reference Decter-Frain2022; Imai and Khanna Reference Imai and Khanna2016). History of segregation across space and marriage (Massey and Denton Reference Massey and Denton1993) leads BISG to be an especially effective method of studying race within the United States (Imai and Khanna Reference Imai and Khanna2016).

While generally accurate, further reducing errors in BISG would be highly valuable. BISG largely offers gains over traditional EI methods used when studying voter turnout specifically via two components as originally defined by Palmquist (Reference Palmquist1993) in EI research: reducing specification and inflation errors. First, BISG employs the especially informative components of name data – as acquired from the census list on surnames by race (Barreto et al. Reference Barreto, Cohen, Collingwood, Dunn and Waknin2022) – and homogeneous precise geographic units to substantially reduce the specification error. Secondly, even when an observation must be assigned to a single race via pluralistic assignment, BISG inflates the specification error by individual as opposed to all observations within a precinct or county. Where traditional EI research attempts to reduce the error within these two stages to the greatest extent possible (King Reference King1997), these flaws are magnified in the two-stage nature of voting rights EI applications – estimation of turnout and then voter choice. As Barreto et al. (Reference Barreto, Cohen, Collingwood, Dunn and Waknin2022) note in identifying the pitfalls in holding up EI research in litigation, these issues become fatally problematic when studying local elections and non-partisan races. Where statewide analyses can approach medium-N studies for EI research, sub-state analyses have far fewer voters and precincts to the point that even the most robust EI results are too fragile to be meaningfully employed in peer-reviewed research or litigation.

Within the context of redistricting, BISG permits estimates of race on individuals within voter lists, which greatly reduces the noise that arises in estimating the racial proportions of those who turn out with only geographic units. Therefore, BISG leads to less uncertainty, and therefore reduces the need to “overly pack” racial minority voters into a few districts as a means to ensure that they can elect a representative of their choice (Grose Reference Grose2011; Hicks et al. Reference Hicks, Klarner, McKee and Smith2018; Lublin Reference Lublin1997). Where employing only census geographic estimates might lead to the desire to create districts where the racial minority population could approach 70% (Lublin Reference Lublin1997), BISG can reduce the threshold by at least half (DeLuca and Curiel Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022). While BISG will not solve the long-running normative debate as to whether it is superior to maximize the proportion of minority influence or majority-minority districts (Grose Reference Grose2011; Overby and Cosgrove Reference Overby and Cosgrove1996; Steelman and Curiel Reference Steelman and Curiel2022), it does reduce the uncertainty that in part fuels the divide, thereby leading to potential benefits in substantive and descriptive representation (Pitkin Reference Pitkin1967).

Despite clear advances, even the cutting-edge applications of BISG as spearheaded by Imai and Khanna (Reference Imai and Khanna2016) still see shortcomings. These issues primarily derive from the name component of BISG applications. All BISG packages rely upon surname dictionaries gathered by the census. Not all surnames can be included in the surname dictionary, with the WRU package containing just under 170,000 surnames. If a name is not included in this list, then a surname merge will fail, leaving a missing imputation or an uninformed prior on the surname (Mateos Reference Mateos2007). Misread characters and list maintenance issues likewise cause merge failures. Second, BISG does not incorporate information on first name, which Voicu (Reference Voicu2018) demonstrates can substantially improve predictive power. However, even packages modifying BISG, like Bayesian Improved First Name Surname Geocode (BIFSG) in Python’s Surgeo package (Weeden, Health, and Naunheim Reference Weeden, Health and Naunheim2022), face the same static and merge issues. Applications of any BISG or BIFSG method with a static dictionary will necessarily be more prone to error as time moves on. These two issues interact to cause general inefficiencies in the data as related to missingness and failed estimations of race. Where BISG cannot estimate race accurately – or at all – it necessarily leads to specification error. Where scholars might likewise apply BISG to local contexts where individuals are assigned to a single race even amidst such uncertainty – pluralistic assignment – BISG applications can start to approach the same type of error that traditionally afflicts normal EI methods (DeLuca and Curiel Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022; King Reference King1997).

We stress that BISG will almost certainly strictly dominate previous EI methods, as discussed at length by Imai and Khanna (Reference Imai and Khanna2016) and Barreto et al. (Reference Barreto, Cohen, Collingwood, Dunn and Waknin2022). However, if the error can be reduced further still and made more adaptable to overcome current structural limitations, then race scholars, especially those within the field of state and local politics, can attain even greater confidence in their results. These advances would in turn lead to decreased uncertainty, leading to advances in the precision of policy solutions to reduce racial disparities in issues ranging from redistricting and election administration to public health.

First application: Congressional redistricting

We validate the ZRP package against the voter files from North Carolina and Georgia as part of a replication and extension of the work by DeLuca and Curiel (Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022). In our replication, we employ the ZRP Python package against the WRU package created by Imai and Khanna (Reference Imai and Khanna2016) and extension package zipWRUext created by Clark, Curiel, and Steelman (Reference Clark, Curiel and Steelman2022) to compare ML-modified estimates of race against traditional BISG estimates. We validate the estimates of each of the methods against the self-reported race within the voter files.Footnote ¹⁰ For the purpose of primary figures, we compare the percentage point difference in errors between WRU BISG estimates and ZRP ML-modified BISG.

Our first application employs North Carolina and Georgia for two reasons: feasibility and applicability. The field of BISG validity studies requires that a state actually have self-reported race by which to validate against. These almost entirely consist of VRA-covered states with majority-minority district requirements. The issue of monetary costs is also significant: despite federal law requiring accessible statewide-reported voter lists, most are not. Most states employ some type of requirement of being a state resident and some type of fee. For example, if we wanted to validate on Mississippi, that would be at least $1,100, and for Alabama, $37,000.Footnote ¹¹ Therefore, the state of the field necessitates strategic selection of states, even for R1 universities.

Fortunately, North Carolina and Georgia are not only relatively inexpensive; they act as critical cases. Both states effectively started the debate over how to ensure majority-minority districts that actually physically cohere (Curiel and Steelman Reference Curiel and Steelman2018; Monmonier Reference Monmonier2001), a debate that started due to their status as the most populated rural states. Georgia likewise sees a large proportion of rural Black voters, a pattern not present in most methodologically easy applications of BISG, such as those on segregated metropolitan areas (Enos, Kaufman, and Sands Reference Enos, Kaufman and Sands2019). The number of districts required for each state – 13 for North Carolina and 14 for Georgia – makes the states exponentially more complex to redistrict relative to smaller states like Alabama or Mississippi (Cho and Liu Reference Cho, Tam and Liu2016). Additionally, Lublin (Reference Lublin1997) and Grose, Mangum, and Martin (Reference Grose, Mangum and Martin2007) note that the reason why North Carolina and Georgia White Democrats adopted extremely odd-looking and geographically dispersed districts arose from the near impossibility to redistrict additional majority-minority districts that did not sacrifice the reelection prospects of incumbent White Democrats. Therefore, scholars such as Curiel and Steelman (Reference Curiel and Steelman2018), Clark, Curiel, and Steelman (Reference Clark, Curiel and Steelman2022), and DeLuca and Curiel (Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022) make use of these states for earning the highest returns given the cost; if BISG methodologies can survive the stress test by working where its effectiveness should be its weakest, while applied to states where redistricting approaches the limits of ensemble redistricting simulation methods, then it can very likely be applied elsewhere with relative safety. The substantive application to extremely litigious states on majority-minority districts acts as a policy benefit as well by demonstrating how the methods developed here can address critical real-world redistricting controversies.

In order to perform a one-to-one comparison of the two estimation methods, we first take the privately identifying information (pii) voter file data for North Carolina and run the ZRP command. The ZRP command includes a built-in ZRP geocoder, which places a given individual’s address within the following priority look-up sequence: CBG, census tract, and finally ZIP code. We therefore ensure that should any differences in estimation arise, it does not arise from different geographic precision.Footnote ¹² Following our estimation of race via ZRP, we run BISG via WRU in R with the geocoded information from ZRP.Footnote ¹³ Within the North Carolina voter file, we found 83.6% of observations geocoded to the CBG level, and the remaining 16.4% to the ZIP code level. For Georgia, ZRP geocoded 81.3% of observations to CBGs, and the remaining 18.7% to the ZIP code level.

With these estimates, we can then proceed to compare the two posterior allocation methods – plurality versus probabilistic – for aggregating race data up to the precinct, ZIP code, and district level. Using these estimates, we take the difference and first proceed to compare the general error given allocation method, with positive values reflecting greater accuracy on the part of ZRP, and negative values reflecting greater accuracy for BISG as predicted via WRU. At the precinct level, we compare the percentage point difference in error in the predicted number of White and Black voters for the two methods. For ZIP codes, we proceed to calculate the mean error as grouped by the geographic unit against the racial diversity of the area, as calculated with the effective number of races present. The scale for our purposes runs from one to three.Footnote ¹⁴

For the district-level comparison and potential impact on representation, we then replicate the redistricting simulations by DeLuca and Curiel (Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022). Specifically, we use the same redistricting simulation resultsFootnote ¹⁵ and merge our estimates of the racial composition of precincts in order to compare BISG and ZRP performance. With these results, we can compare how far each method deviates from the voter file’s race data and calculate the differences in errors.

Results: Congressional redistricting

We first compare the overall performance of WRU-estimated BISG against ZRP. More often than not, both the ZRP- and BISG-imputed races are similar when considering plurality assignment of race (assigning an individual’s race to the race with the highest predicted probability). For North Carolina, the ZRP and BISG plurality estimates match 87.57% of the time. For Georgia, the plurality match rates are 84.76%. Therefore, the ZRP and BISG estimates generally converge on similar estimates when using plurality assignment.

Of the remaining approximately 12.43% of observations within North Carolina that are in conflict with each other, the traditional WRU BISG estimates the correct race 23.63% of the time. In contrast, the ZRP estimates amidst conflicting estimates produce the correct estimates 62.28% of the time. Therefore, amidst conflicting estimates, ZRP is approximately 2.64 times more likely to be correct relative to BISG estimates in North Carolina. Within Georgia, in the 15.24% of the cases where BISG and ZRP estimates are in conflict, BISG estimates the correct race 18.04% of the time. The Georgia ZRP estimates in turn are correct 61.95% of the time amidst such conflict. Therefore, amidst conflicting estimates, ZRP is approximately 3.43 times more likely to be correct relative to BISG estimates in Georgia. These results attest to the power of ZRP’s ML name component weights over the static surname dictionary seen in the traditional BISG estimates.

Overall, ZRP plurality estimates get 82.9% of respondents correctly classified in the North Carolina voter file, while BISG plurality assignments place 78.0% correctly, representing a 6.3 percentage point improvement. In Georgia, ZRP plurality estimates get 76.0% of respondents correctly classified, while BISG plurality places 69.3% correctly classified, representing a 9.7 percentage point improvement.

We next compare the two methods aggregating to precincts. Figure 1 presents the results for each state by race and assignment method. The density plots show the differences in percentage point error rate between BISG and ZRP, such that positive values reflect greater error on the part of traditional BISG relative to the ML-modified BISG (ZRP), and negative values indicate the opposite. We see that in North Carolina, weighting and aggregating the probabilities result in the ML racial estimation to outperform traditional BISG approximately 56% of the time for Whites. In contrast, when assigning race pluralistically, ML racial estimation outperforms traditional BISG 84% of the time for Whites. Similar results exist for estimating African American status, with ML superior 55% of the time when aggregating probabilities, and 87% for the time when assigned pluralistically.

Figure 1.

Distribution of differences error by race assignment and state.

Positive values reflect greater error on the part of WRU-estimated BISG relative to the ML-modified BISG of ZRP, and vice versa for negative values.

We see even greater improvements for ZRP within Georgia: weighting and aggregating the probabilities lead to ZRP outperforming BISG approximately 81.7% of the time for Whites, and 90.9% of the time when assigning race pluralistically. We get similar results when estimating African American voters, with ZRP superior 75.4% of the time when aggregating probabilities and 86.1% for the time when assigned pluralistically.

Overall, ZRP demonstrates improved accuracy over traditional BISG across all precincts. However, the improvements can vary substantially by state. As previously mentioned, the inflation error exacerbates the specification error especially when estimates are less certain. Therefore, we next test whether the degree to which one of the sources of error for both BISG and ZRP – heterogeneous geographic units – leads to less informative priors.

We plot the difference in percentage point error relative to the effective number of races present at the ZIP code level by state. Figure 2 presents the results for North Carolina, while Figure 3 shows the results for Georgia. Both figures categorize the results by assignment method – probability summing or plurality. We see in both figures that ZRP consistently offers improvements in accuracy relative to traditional BISG as the racial diversity of an area increases. The rate of improvement, however, tends to hit a ceiling around an effective number of races at 1.8 for both North Carolina and Georgia. Around such a point, ZRP tends to have error rates that are about 10 percentage points lower than traditional BISG, and the magnitude of this results is similar across contexts.

Figure 2.

Surname dictionary BISG vs. ML differences in error – North Carolina.

Figure 3.

Surname dictionary BISG vs. ML differences in error – Georgia.

Y-axis positive values reflect greater error on the part of WRU-estimated BISG relative to the ML-modified BISG of ZRP, and vice versa for negative values. X-axis reflects effective number of races, with higher values indicating less informed priors from the geographic units. Shaded area around bars reflect 95% confidence interval.

Redistricting simulations analysis

We proceed to compare the two methods as aggregated to districts and across 10,000 simulated district maps for each of the two states in Figures 4 and 5. We present the results by state, imputation method, and race. Within an individual plot, we additionally present the error point estimates by assignment method relative to the race as reported within the voter file for a given state. Y-axis reflects the absolute percentage point difference, and X-axis the proportion of the population of a given race.

Figure 4.

BISG vs. ZRP accuracy – North Carolina.

Figure 5.

BISG vs. ZRP accuracy – Georgia.

Figure 4 presents the results for North Carolina. The results for traditional BISG estimates in panels (a) and (c) are nearly identical to the original work by DeLuca and Curiel (Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022). As originally found, the errors for plurality assignment are significant and substantive in all but the three most heavily concentrated racial minority populated districts. In contrast, the plurality and weighted probability aggregated estimates start to converge toward lack of significant differences for ZRP. The plurality estimates range between approximately 2 and 3 percentage points in the estimation of White voters. For the estimation of Black voters, the differences between plurality and weighted probabilities no longer demonstrate significant differences past districts where Black voters comprise over 15% of the population. These results suggest that plurality assignment becomes feasible – albeit not necessarily recommended – for redistricting when employing ZRP.

When comparing ZRP with traditional BISG in North Carolina, the plurality ZRP results in panels (b) and (d) show that errors are reduced by about 2 percentage points. However, the ZRP weighted probability estimates are not significantly different – or in a few cases slightly worse – relative to BISG. Crucially, both methods function similarly where it matters – estimating the composition of the primary majority-minority districts. Both methods converge in reducing the error to under 5 percentage points. In summary for North Carolina, ZRP is preferred for plurality assignment, though it does not offer improvements over traditional BISG if doing probabilistic assignment.

Y-axis reflects the absolute percentage point difference between the voter file race data and racial estimated data. X-axis represents the proportion of the population of a given race. Bars reflect 95% confidence interval, and the point the median estimate.

Figure 5 presents the results for Georgia. We again see nearly identical estimates in panels (a) and (c) as in the original work by DeLuca and Curiel (Reference DeLuca and Curiel2022). Within Georgia, the differences in errors between plurality assignment weighted probabilities are significant and substantive in all but two districts for Whites, and the four most heavily concentrated Black districts. Like with North Carolina, we see convergence of plurality and probability weighted estimates for ZRP for estimating Whites within districts (panel b), and no significant differences for estimating Black voters (panel d). ZRP cuts the error rate in half for the purpose of estimating Whites, relative to BISG. While the error rates for Georgia tend to be consistently higher relative to North Carolina when using BISG alone, the estimates become comparable when employing ZRP. For the estimation of Black voters where they comprise under half the district voting population, the ZRP estimates – regardless of assignment method – approach a percentage point difference from the voter file. For the four majority-minority districts with ZRP, the error rates are under 2.5 percentage points. While technically not significantly different within the majority-minority districts relative to traditional BISG, the error bars are far greater for BISG. Therefore, we see that within Georgia, ZRP produces consistently accurate estimates regardless of assignment method, which is not true for traditional BISG. Therefore, the results suggest that using ZRP in Georgia is preferred over BISG estimates.

Y-axis reflects the absolute percentage point difference between the voter file race data and racial estimated data. X-axis represents the proportion of the population of a given race. Bars reflect 95% confidence interval, and the point the median estimate.

Second application: Competing state assembly maps in Wisconsin

We next proceed to analyze the applicability of ML-modified BISG to traditional BISG within the context of Wisconsin’s majority-minority state assembly districts within the Milwaukee metropolitan area. Wisconsin is of interest for a few reasons. First, the Wisconsin Supreme Court in Johnson v. Wisconsin Elections Commission (2022) accepted BISG for the purpose of demonstrating racial disparities. Therefore, it provides a useful and immediate baseline for legal adoption in other contexts.

Second, the contention in redistricting within the state after the 2020 census resulted in a contentious inter- and intraparty conflict. Ultimately, the State Supreme Court chose between two competing maps from which to adopt a minimal-changes approach for the state assembly districts.Footnote ¹⁶ However, the lead up to the Democratic proposed map for the state assembly added an additional majority-minority district, which incurred complaints from the Milwaukee area assembly members fearing the inability to win reelection.Footnote ¹⁷

While such concerns are not uncommon, the third reason for interest in Wisconsin is that the state lacks information on race within their voter file. Therefore, unless state assembly members could verify the percentage by race per district with proprietary data – which appears to not have been the case for Democrats who were not directly involved with Governor Evers’s plan – then there would be sufficient uncertainty as to whether the attempt to efficiently spread out racial minority voters might accidentally cause a “cracking” gerrymander. Finally, Wisconsin is of interest as it falls outside the traditionally analyzed southern VRA-covered states. Therefore, it adds to the geographic diversity in BISG validation studies.

We take advantage of two datasets for the purpose of validating the accuracy of Wisconsin’s registered voter composition. First, while the state of Wisconsin does not publish racial estimates of registered voters, Redistricting Data Hub (2022) purchased and aggregated L2 voter file data for Wisconsin Census Blocks. The L2 data includes internally imputed estimates of race and is considered the standard manner by which to acquire racial estimates in states where voter files lack self-reported race data. A cost prohibitive issue still remained – the Wisconsin voter file itself – which costs $12,500, one of the most expensive voter files within the nation.Footnote ¹⁸ However, the MIT Election Data and Science Lab purchased the Wisconsin voter file for November 2020 as part of their Healthy Elections project and shared with us the data. Therefore, we have a voter file with the necessary information to impute race for both ZRP and BISG, and as credible a “ground truth” as we might achieve in a state that does not collect self-reported race information in their voter file.

We first estimate the WI race data from the WI voter file via the aforementioned ZRP and BISG methods. Upon completion, we aggregate these data – by plurality assignment and weighted probabilities – to the WI electoral ward level into the categories of White and non-White. We proceed to merge these ward aggregated data onto the Wisconsin electoral ward shapefile data, as acquired from the Wisconsin Legislative Technology Services Bureau (2022). We next subset these data to the Milwaukee county municipal wards.Footnote ¹⁹ We next acquired the three different maps from the internet-archived shapefile data from Princeton Gerrymandering Project (2021a) for the Democratic proposed plan, and Princeton Gerrymandering Project (2021b) for the Republican state assembly proposed plan. We finally spatially overlay both the L2 census block aggregated data and electoral ward ZRP and BISG WI voter file imputed estimates onto the competing maps. Our outcome of interest is the distribution of the difference in the non-White population between the L2 data and ZRP/BISG estimates within the Milwaukee area districts. If we are to see either race imputation method to be of use, they should not only follow the rank ordering of districts from least to most White as estimated by L2 but also demonstrate minimal differences.

Results for the Wisconsin state assembly districts

We present the findings on the differences between the ZRP and BISG estimates in Figure 6 for both the Republican and Democratic proposals. X-axis plots the districts’ racial minority populations, with the $ 11\mathrm{th} $ district the approximate point of the majority-minority cut point. The L2 data estimates the $ 11\mathrm{th} $ district from the Republican proposal at a non-White population of 48.3%, and the Democratic proposal at 52.5% approximately. In the proposed plans, the Republican $ 10\mathrm{th} $ district contains a non-White population of only 33% – likely a situation that falls under a “cracking” gerrymander due to a sizeable yet insufficient racial minority population to select a candidate of their preferred race (Grose Reference Grose2011). The Democratic plan in turn sees the $ 10\mathrm{th} $ most district at 49% non-White, with the $ 9\mathrm{th} $ district at 35.5% non-White. Across the districts that do fall within the majority-minority category, the Republican proposal ranges from a minimum of 56.5% to a maximum of 73.7% non-White. The Democratic plans in turn range from a minimum of 52.5–65% non-White. These results fall in line with the complaints by Rep. Sylvia Ortiz-Velez that the Democratic map places racial minorities in a precarious position during elections, as the additional majority-minority district notably reduces that margins of registered non-White votes.

Figure 6.

BISG vs. ZRP accuracy – Wisconsin state assembly proposals.

We can ascertain the effectiveness of the ZRP vs. BISG estimates by looking to the Y-axis in Figure 6, where positive values reflect an underestimate by the racial imputation methods, and negative values an overestimate. Looking to districts 1 through 10, we see that all imputation methods underestimate the prevalence of racial minorities, with the errors in close proximity for the plurality estimates of ZRP and BISG. The BISG probability weighted estimates place closest to the zero line, hovering around an error of 5 percentage points, followed by ZRP (i.e., ML-prob.), which places closer to 10 percentage points. However, we see notable differences once we consider the actual majority-minority districts. The BISG plurality and probability weighted estimates range in error from approximately 5–10 percentage points in overestimating the percentage of registered non-White voters. These errors increase as the districts become more non-White. The ZRP estimates in turn start to converge with each other for these majority-minority districts in both the Republican and Democratic proposals. The highest error occurs for the $ 11\mathrm{th} $ district at just over 10 percentage points for the Republican plan, then quickly dropping to an average error of approximately 3 percentage points for both the Republican and Democratic plans. The most non-White districts see estimates nearly identical to the L2 data.

Y-axis reflects the percentage point differences between the L2 data and racial estimated data for the percentage of non-White voters. Positive values reflect an underestimate of the percentage of non-White voters, and negative values an overestimate. X-axis ranks districts in order of the proportion of the population that is White.

Notably, we additionally find Rep. Sylvia Ortiz-Velez’s state assembly district 8 – district 13 on the Republican proposal X-axis and 11 for the Democratic proposal – at a non-White population of approximately 60% under the Republican plan, compared to 52.5% under the Democratic plan when using the L2 data. Were Rep. Sylvia Ortiz-Velez to employ ZRP, she would find a non-White population between 54% and 55% when employing plurality and weighted probabilities, respectively. Under the Democratic plan, the state assembly district 8 equivalent saw a ZRP-estimated non-White population of 43.5% and 47.7% via plurality and probability weighted assignment, respectively. Under traditional BISG, the estimates for the non-White population is approximately 10 percentage points higher. These results in combination with the aforementioned trends suggest that the error between the two methods can be meaningful to an individual state legislator. Both methods place her at the correct rank order of districts, though ZRP/ML-modified BISG reduces the error and better approximates how marginal the racial minority population is within her district. Therefore, while these results suggest that both methods can be useful absent voter file data on race, it is ZRP that better approximates the gold-standard proprietary data employed by political parties.