One objective in the study of classical Arabic poetry is identifying characteristics that have eluded earlier research attention. This contributes to overall understanding of this poetic tradition, its focus on the work of overlooked and so-called minor poets often uncovering innovative aspects.
Among these poets is Mulayh b. al-Hakam al-Hudhali. His years of birth and death remain unknown, and his biography is somewhat obscure, with medieval Arabic sources providing scant details. In contemporary studies, he tends to be overshadowed by other poets from the same Hudhayl tribe, such as the more renowned Abu Dhuʾayb al-Hudhali (d. c. 28/649) and Abu Sakhr al-Hudhali (d. c. 80/700). Mulayh, however, ranks third among five Hudhali poets in terms of the largest number of extant verses, even though the tribe had over a hundred poets.Footnote 1 Modern analyses, while limited, suggest that Mulayh was a mukhaḍram poet (a term referring to someone whose lifetime straddled the pre-Islamic and early Islamic eras), born in the pre-Islamic era and living into the Umayyad period.Footnote 2 He, along with other Hudhali members, possibly spent part of his life in Egypt.Footnote 3 Some modern scholars, notably Julius Wellhausen, have considered Mulayh’s poetry “uninteresting.”Footnote 4 However, others view his work as stylistically and linguistically significant, deserving of deeper study and even translation into Western languages.Footnote 5 The poetry of Mulayh, along with that of other Hudhali poets who lived in Egypt after the advent of Islam, is crucial for understanding the historical and cultural context of that era. Modern studies have demonstrated that the works of Hudhali poets who migrated to Egypt provide valuable insights into historical events often overlooked by medieval sources on early Islam.Footnote 6 Mulayh’s poetry also showcases some of his unparalleled innovations, particularly evident in his love poems.Footnote 7 As I argue in this article, these poems represent key developments in this early period of Arabic poetry, both in content and structure.
Here, I trace the evolution of a common structural section widely used in classical Arabic poetry, particularly in the poetry of Mulayh b. al-Hakam, from its origins up to the time of Mulayh’s probable death in the Umayyad period, which concluded in 132/750. This section can be referred to by various names—the Male Camel (al-jamal), Palanquin (al-hawdaj), or Preparation (al-istiʿdād li-l-riḥla) section—and forms part of the traditional ẓaʿāʾin scene (the description of the beloved’s departure), which has been preserved in the classical Arabic ode throughout the ages. It typically describes the beloved’s tribe preparing for departure, with a focus on the male camel that carries the beloved and/or her palanquin. For brevity, I refer to this as the “male camel section.” Since references to male camels appear in pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetry in other contexts, however, and because the term “camel section” is commonly used to describe the she-camel ridden by the poet-protagonist on his desert journey (a topic I will address later in this article), I specify this section as the “beloved’s male camel section.”Footnote 8 This designation clarifies that the focus is on the male camel prepared for the beloved’s departure, including her own preparation for the journey upon it.
While study of thematic and structural developments in classical Arabic poetry is not new, it remains highly significant.Footnote 9 Uncovering the unique characteristics of a specific section or even a motif across different periods not only enhances our understanding of classical Arabic poetry, its literary culture, and its evolution over time, but also gives researchers a reliable tool for assessing the authenticity of early Arabic poetry.Footnote 10 The authenticity of pre- and early Islamic poems, particularly those from before the end of the Umayyad era, remains a subject of debate. Some poems attributed to the pre-Islamic era, for example, may have been composed at a later date. This is not explored in detail here, as it has been widely discussed in various scholarly contexts.Footnote 11 In this article, I contend that examining the use of structural, stylistic, or thematic elements in each period is an effective approach to determining the correct attribution of disputed poems to specific eras.Footnote 12
The ẓaʿāʾin scene (plural of ẓaʿīna)—referring to the woman’s palanquin or the woman within it and, in poetry, symbolizing the departure of the beloved’s tribe—features the element examined in this article. This scene is one of the three main structural components of the nasīb (love prelude), which has shaped traditional Arabic poetry since pre-Islamic times.Footnote 13 Medieval scholars gave this section various names—among them, dhikr al-ahl al-ẓāʿinīn (referring to the traveling tribe), dhikr al-firāq (referring to the separation), al-wadāʿ (farewell), al-taraḥḥul ʿan al-diyār (traveling from the abodes), and al-bukāʾ ʿalā al-ẓāʿinīn (weeping over those mounted on the camels).Footnote 14 The primary contribution of these scholars is often merely collecting verses from this section, and lacks deep exploration of the poetic qualities of this part of the poem. In contrast, modern scholars have accurately noted that this section appears far less frequently in classical Arabic poetry than the other nasīb elements, particularly the aṭlāl (the deserted campsite of the beloved).Footnote 15 This may explain why it has received less scholarly attention than these or other main structural components of the classical Arabic poem, in both modern research and medieval criticism.Footnote 16 Renate Jacobi notes that this section typically includes parts of the following seven main subsections: (1) declaration of the imminent departure of the beloved’s tribe, (2) preparation for departure, (3) description of the tribe’s caravan journey, (4) disappearance of the caravan, (5) the routes taken by the caravan, (6) the poet’s sorrow, and (7) description of the beloved.Footnote 17 Most studies of this section simply summarize its main motifs, highlighting the need for further analysis of its role in shaping the Arabic qaṣīda. Footnote 18 This article explores the historical evolution of subsection (2)—the preparation for departure—in the pre- and early Islamic poetic heritage. Study of the other subsections and their development in classical Arabic poetry is also essential.
Mulayh b. al-Hakam is arguably the poet whose work features the ẓaʿāʾin scene most prominently, particularly from a statistical perspective. Seven of his eleven surviving poems describe in detail the departing caravan of the beloved. In six of them, the scene centers on the beloved’s male camel section, which serves as its main—if not sole—structural unit. These poems are numbered 1–6 in the Kitab Sharh Ashʿar al-Hudhaliyyin (Commentary on the Poetry of the Hudhayl Tribe). Compiled by Baghdadi philologist Abu Saʿid al-Sukkari (d. 275/888) and edited by ʿAbd al-Sattar Ahmad Farraj, this is a comprehensive collection of Hudhayl poetry from the pre- and early Islamic periods into the Umayyad era—that is, the work of poets who lived during the 6th to 8th centuries CE.Footnote 19 The third section of this compilation opens with the poetry of Mulayh b. al-Hakam.
In his poem nos. 1–6, Mulayh adheres to a strict structure. With the exception of poem no. 5, the beloved’s male camel section initiates the ode, with no typical aṭlāl scene preceding it. The usual logical structure of the classical Arabic ode is opening the poem with the aṭlāl, and following it by recollecting the day of departure or the ẓaʿāʾin scene, displaying the emotional response of the lover-poet as he visits the deserted campsite of his beloved. The campsite transforms into an “emotive geography” or a “geography of memories,” evoking memories of the poet’s past relationship with his beloved, and especially their final encounter on the day of her departure.Footnote 20 Omitting the aṭlāl scene suggests that the beloved’s departure is not a memory for the poet-protagonist, but rather a current event occurring within the poem’s immediate timeframe. It is this departure that triggers the subsequent events in Mulayh’s qaṣīdas. Unlike traditional use of the ẓaʿāʾin section, in which the lover-poet returns to the abandoned campsite of his beloved long after she has left and relives their last encounter, in Mulayh’s poems, the lover-poet beholds his beloved’s leave-taking in real time.
The love stories in Mulayh’s six poems unfold as follows: Each opens with the poet witnessing his beloved leave the place where her tribe and that of her lover have lived side by side. Next comes the beloved’s male camel section, its various motifs examined below. This is sometimes followed by verses which describe the lover’s distress, recount his treatment by his beloved or his pursuit of the departing camels, and culminate in a final encounter with his beloved. In poem no. 1, the empty abodes of the beloved are depicted after the beloved’s male camel section, but they are fresh (recently abandoned) aṭlāl not the long-deserted aṭlāl typical of the traditional qaṣīda.
After relating the love affair, Mulayh’s poems take one of three directions: The poet seeks solace from his love-induced melancholy by recounting a journey on his she-camel through a forbidding desert (referred to by some modern scholars as the “camel-section,” featured in poem nos. 4–6); or he extols his own personal traits (poem no. 1); or contemplates the powerlessness of lovers, like all individuals, against relentless Fate, often recalling an earlier love that met a similarly sad end (poem no. 2). In some instances, he combines these approaches, recounting another love story followed by a desert journey (as in poem no. 3).
The beloved’s male camel section in Mulayh’s poetry features several recurring motifs. They are the announcement of the tribe’s departure and collecting the camels from pasture; a detailed depiction of the camels, emphasizing the sound of their teeth; preparing the camels for departure, highlighting the palanquins that will carry the women; the women, including the beloved, approaching the palanquins as they mount the camels; celebrating the beauty of the women and the beloved; and finally, the departure of the caravan.
The motifs from two representative examples of the beloved’s male camel section (poems nos. 4 and 5) are examined below. The Arabic text is followed by my English translation and discussion. While the vocabulary in these texts is challenging, especially the description of the camels and their equipment, the translation aims to convey faithfully the meanings of the original Arabic. The verse numbers in the quoted passages below correspond to those in the printed sources from which the poems were taken. As these passages do not always appear at the beginning of the poem, the numbering does not always start with “1.”
The Beloved’s Male Camel Section in Poem No. 4
5. No fear of separation until I heard them calling for an early [departure] and for bringing back the male camels.
6. In the morning light, they folded their tents and gathered all the camels with their strong, well-formed backs, which were not slender.
7. [Camels] with sturdy bodies from neck to back, their forelegs set wide apart,Footnote 22 and their jaws producing high-pitched sounds like the cry of hawks.
8. When they are turned [to be tied] with the ropes, they scowl in ire, and their small bells do not fall silent.
9. When they tie the straps around them, the chests of the nine-year-old red male camels, filled with air, push them away.
10. [Soon after,] they hardly lowered themselves toward the ground, until they almost touched it, then covered the earth with their chests.Footnote 23
11. When they placed the saddle blankets on them, their solid, well-fed backs and raised withers lifted them up.
12. They were loaded solely with Celtis wood [saddles] and palanquins draped in silk cloth; their dried poles were embellished with engravings.
13. They were covered with silk cloth alongside other garments of different decorative designs.
14. When their loads were set upright, the camels swayed from side to side,Footnote 24 their palanquins held high, with their interiors cool.Footnote 25
15. [The women] entered gracefully, like wide-eyed antelopes speed, in the morning’s hot breeze, toward dense shadows, where trees are entwined.
16. They repaired with Layla toward a tall, sturdy male camel, whose sweat dripping along its neck resembled old wine made from raisins.
17. When the beloved approached the male camel that lay low on the ground for her, patient in restraint,Footnote 26 his muscles relaxed,
18. She mounted him, seeking shade, deliberate and slow, her belly heaving with each breath, holding herself tight with her fingers.
19. You see the drops of sweat mingling with her labored and vehement breaths, falling on her neck and her decorated sides.
20. [The sweat dripped down] her tall, trembling body, and then she leaned it with the weight of her plump buttocks, resembling a sand dune in the meadow.
21. Her belly was slim, her legs plump and full, her steps slow-paced, and her anklet did not move freely.Footnote 27
22. The space between her eyes was clear, and the tracks where her tears have flowed abundantly shimmered, as if gilded with gold.
23. As she moved, her twin belts swayed, making the long, clustered, jeweled decorations jingle against one another.
24. As she rose heavily, she swayed like a drunkard whose body leans and moves from side to side.
25. When she was seated upon him [the camel], he lying firm [on the ground with a palanquin] of different colors [on his back], its curtains hanging down,
26. He braced his chest with his feet; had he not had strong limbs, he would not have been able to rise with her.
27. The women around her turned the white camels toward her, like mother camels bending down to their calves.
28. When the camels lined up, ready to depart, and the herd gathered around her, they resembled clusters of palm trees along a watercourse,Footnote 28
29. They lowered their cheeks [to submit] to the metal rings [in their noses], their quivering necks resembling tall tree trunks.
30. They covered their cheeks with foam and advanced along a clear path, one with smooth mountain trails.
31. Sadly I said, “Would that Layla, her people, and her camels departed with my people and my camels!”
32. And I said in the direction of Layla, “farewell; [if she were to grant me a farewell,] it would be a gracious gift from her.”Footnote 29
33. She was reluctant to say farewell; she did not respond to the sorrowful one and offered no words to the inquirer.
34. She [simply] revealed a sweet [smile] with bright teeth, as if glistening with water from the torrent of thundering clouds.
The poem comprises sixty verses, with the central love section (nasīb) dominating nearly two-thirds of the composition (verses 1–43). The remainder recounts the lover-protagonist’s quest for solace. Conventionally, the protagonist transitions to the camel section, where he boasts of his daring journey across a perilous desert on camelback. Most of these verses emphasize the capacity and endurance of his she-camel.
Pre- and early Islamic poetry was familiar with a conventional qaṣīda structure—the tripartite form—in which the poem opens with the nasīb, followed by a camel section, which typically precedes sections of praise, self-praise, or others. While this structure did not predominate in pre-Islamic poetry, it appeared in many early poems from that era and continued to be used in later periods. Modern scholars have studied this structure extensively and traced its development through different poetic traditions. Nathaniel Miller, for example, has observed that the tripartite structure in the pre-Islamic era characterized Nejdi poetry (from Nejd in central northern Arabia) more consistently than poems composed in the Hejaz region of western Arabia. In the latter, including the works of Hudhali poets—a subset of Hejazi poeticism—the middle section of the tripartite qaṣīda played a less significant role and was often absent.Footnote 30
In later periods, specifically during the Umayyad era, the qaṣīda—previously regarded as a “tribal ode”—evolved into a courtly poem designed to extol the court or a specific patron. In this context, the camel section, much like in earlier Hejazi poetry, was often shortened. In some cases, the middle section was entirely omitted. This transition from the tripartite tribal ode to a bipartite courtly ode became more pronounced during the Abbasid era, beginning in the 2nd/8th century.
This development trajectory is, however, absent in Mulayh’s poetry, including the present poem. Although he lived during the Umayyad era, his poetry in general—and this poem in particular—departs from the conventions of his time, as well as from the Hudhali tradition.Footnote 31 Instead, his work aligns more closely with the old pre-Islamic poetic convention.
Renate Jacobi, in her seminal 1996 article, examined the origins of the qaṣīda form. She suggested that the combination of the nasīb section and self-praise as the sole two main sections of a poem represents a stage in the historical development of the Arabic qaṣīda, possibly dating from the 6th century CE. According to Jacobi, after expressing melancholic feelings of love, the poet consoled himself by singing of his own merits. This self-praise section was often introduced by descriptions of the poet’s ability to traverse dangerous deserts, alongside praise for the physical endurance of his she-camel.Footnote 32
This bipartite structure characterizes Mulayh’s poem no. 4. However, in this poem, the self-praise section revolves around a single content: the description of the she-camel. The function of this section remains consistent with its role in the pre-Islamic tribal ode.Footnote 33
The nasīb depicts the sudden, unexpected departure of the beloved with her tribe, and her lover’s dismay after she leaves (verses 1–4). It is followed by the beloved’s male camel section, quoted above (verses 5–34). Both constitute part of the broader ẓaʿāʾin section. The nasīb then articulates the lover’s feelings (verse 35) and describes the treatment received from his beloved before she left, highlighting her cruelty and empty promises (verses 36–40). It concludes by implying that the same has happened with a former beloved (verses 41–42).
The beloved’s male camel section in this poem intricately details the departure preparations made by the beloved’s tribe. It vividly portrays the early morning moment when the lover, taken unaware, hears the tribe announce its impending departure, directing that its camels be brought back from pasture and readied for travel (verse 5). The tribe dismantles its tents (verse 6), and vigorous efforts are made to prepare the male camels to carry the women, among them the beloved (verses 6–14). The robust bodies of the camels are depicted, along with difficulty in roping and harnessing them (verse 8–9). Their backs are draped with fabrics known as walāyā (plural of waliyya), on which the saddles and palanquins will rest (verse 11). Some have saddles made of Celtis wood, while others carry palanquins adorned with multicolored cloths (verses 12–13). The women enter the palanquins (verse 15), with that of Layla meticulously described, along with the feelings of her male camel, patiently waiting for the journey to get underway (verse 17). As she approaches the camel and attempts to mount it, Layla’s beauty is particularized (verses 18–24). She is heavy-bodied—much admired in Arabian women in classical times—and when she is in her palanquin, her male camel struggles to stand under her weight (verses 25–26). Verses 28–29 describe other members of the caravan astride their camels, converging around Layla’s male camel. The poem gives no reason for this, but it may indicate the beloved’s high status or her close connections with the other women. Alternatively, it may signify the protectiveness of her family, anxious to stop Layla’s lover contacting or following her.
The section’s final verses narrate the caravan’s readying to leave and the lover’s futile attempts to speak to his beloved, with Layla’s only response a bewitching smile from afar (verses 29–34). A recurring motif in this section of Mulayh’s poetry is the frothing mouths of the camels (verse 30).
The detailed descriptions in this section—particularly of the palanquins, the male camel, and the beauty of the beloved—have a dual function. One is narrative-artistic: The poem, as a work of fine literature, features rich portrayals of its key objects and characters, aiming to create a realistic portrayal of the scene. It is as if the poem unfolds like a cinematic tableau where the setting, objects, and characters are closely explored.Footnote 34 The other aspect is emotional: The poet’s vivid depictions of objects associated with his beloved during their final encounter reflect his profound emotional bond with her. Now that she is no longer accessible, his reflections on their last moments—including the camel and palanquin that carried her away—underscore his deep sadness and attachment to the departed beloved.
The Beloved’s Male Camel Section in Poem No. 5
14. In the pastures, they grazed until rich layers of fat accumulated around their [bodies].
15. And until the marks from the saddle-blankets on their sides have faded, along with their healed wounds.
16. The cloud formations in the mid-sky, laden with rain from the two Simak stars, were torn open upon the smooth white lands, and made to bring forth.
17. They poured [their water] until summer approached, spring ended, and the dried vegetation turned yellow.
18. [In the pastures they lingered] until the time to leave came, and until the female camels, along with the tall, sturdy, male camel, were brought back.
19. Great camels, sweating heavily. As [the sweat] gathered on the sides of their necks, it resembled blackened skin.
20. They blew [froth] that resembled women’s drapery. As they smacked their lips, [their] locked teeth grasped it from their jaws.Footnote 35
21. As [the camels] approached the ground, the saddles, crafted from Celtis [wood], were laid alongside the palanquins, adorned with silken drapes.
22. [The palanquins] were covered with elegant embroidery, their patterns [finely] woven and stitched.
Contrary to the previous poem, where the nasīb is initiated by the ẓaʿāʾin section, the ẓaʿāʾin here follows ten verses that describe the campsite, desolate after the beloved’s departure. The aṭlāl of the beloved has been abandoned by the tribe for two summers—verse 2: arabbat bi-hi ṣayfayni (“the winds dwelt in it for two summers” [after the beloved’s departure]). The poem then sets the stage for the ẓaʿāʾin by illustrating the lover’s anticipation of his beloved’s departure, prompted by the sighting of a black raven, often considered a harbinger of misfortune in classical Arabian culture. The description of the ẓaʿāʾin following the lover-poet’s visit to the beloved’s deserted aṭlāl suggests that, unlike in poem no. 4, the ẓaʿāʾin here is imagined. It is a scene that the lover-poet recalls during or possibly shortly after his visit to the former campsite of his beloved. The ẓaʿāʾin section is introduced in verse 13, where the moving caravan of the beloved’s tribe is compared, in the desert mirage, to ships sailing on a rolling sea. The passage concerning the male camels unfolds within this moving caravan (verses 14–22), while the ẓaʿāʾin section reappears in verses 24–25, as the poet watches the caravan depart.
Verses 26–39 relate the lover’s decision to follow his beloved’s caravan and his secret meeting with her, in which we learn that she, too, rues the separation, and accuses her lover of faithlessness. In verses 40–47, the lover resolves to transcend his sorrow by bravely journeying through the fearsome desert on his she-camel (the camel section). Like the previous poem, this is a bipartite composition, where the nasīb and camel section together contain the entirety of its verses.
The beloved’s male camel section in this poem centers on the pasturing of the tribe’s camels, among them the male that will carry the beloved. Depicting the verdant grazing enjoyed by the herd, the poet describes the heavy rains that have fallen. Verse 16 draws two metaphors from the camel world to conjure the abundant vegetation. First, heavy clouds are portrayed as if slaughtered over the previously barren lands (arḍ bayḍāʾ—literally “white land”). Rain pours from them as fiercely as blood from the necks of slaughtered camels. The second metaphor likens the clouds to postpartum camels, the falling rain evoking the birth of their calves or the breaking waters that preceded their birth. The result is lush greenery, which the camels enjoy for months (verse 17), their bodies growing strong, their coats revitalizing, and their saddle injuries healing (verse 15).
The departure of the beloved’s tribe is seasonal, occurring between spring and summer (verse 17). In summer, the vegetation withers, prompting the search for new pastures for their herds. The relationship between lover and beloved thus likely unfolds during winter and spring, with the summer days heralding total separation. The departure is abruptly announced in verse 18. The camels are brought from pasture to the encampment and prepared for travel, a detailed motif in this section. Among them is the tall, robust male that will carry the beloved (verse 18). It is summer and the camels sweat (verse 19). The froth, seen too in the beloved’s male camel section of the previous poem, is a motif of verse 20. The section concludes with fitting the camels with their saddles and finely decorated palanquins.
Poem nos. 4 and 5 showcase the two variations of the beloved’s male camel section in the work of Mulayh b. al-Hakam al-Hudhali. This section opens poem no. 4, as it does in all Mulayh’s poetry, other than in poem no. 5, where it is preceded by the aṭlāl section. The beloved’s male camel sections in these two poems feature the primary motifs of Mulayh’s poetry. Poem no. 4 focuses on preparation of the camels that carry the tribe’s women, detailing the palanquins, the women approaching the camels and mounting the palanquins. It underlines the beauty of the beloved and her reluctance to speak to her lover before she leaves. Poem no. 5 highlights the pastures and preparation of the camels. Its conclusion is happier, with the lover managing to follow his beloved and even see her before his own journey into the desert.
The structure of the other four beloved’s male camel sections in the poetry of Mulayh b. al-Hakam is shown in Table 1. “Structure” indicates the sequence of distinct paragraphs (terminology adopted from my 2005 article) or subsections.Footnote 36
Structure of the beloved’s male camel section in Mulayh’s poems
With the exception of the brief beloved’s male camel section in poem no. 3, Mulayh’s depiction of this section in his other poems is extensive, running nine to thirty verses, accounting for 30–48 percent of the total verses of each poem. Their elaborate exposition in his work, together with half his poems containing this thematic element, unmistakably establishes the beloved’s male camel section as a hallmark of the work of this Hudhali poet.
This raises the question of the origins of the beloved’s male camel section in pre- and early Arabic poetry, up to the Umayyad period. This is addressed in the following sections.
The Beloved’s Male Camel Section in Pre- and Early Islamic Poetry
The sole beloved’s male camel sections in the Hudhayl dīwān are those of Mulayh b. al-Hakam. Other Hudhayl poets depict the ẓaʿāʾin, but do so according to the traditional contents of pre- and early Islamic poetry, often with the poet-protagonist watching the caravan of his beloved disappear from sight. The caravans are sometimes likened to rows of tall palm trees or ships ploughing the ocean waves, similes which Mulayh b. al-Hakam, too, uses in some of his ẓaʿāʾin scenes (poem no. 2, verse 23; poem no. 5, verses 13, 23–25).Footnote 37
The surviving poems from this early period of Arabic literary culture show fragments or individual motifs of the beloved’s male camel section scattered throughout pre- and early Islamic poetry. These passages often contain brief descriptions—typically one to three verses, although occasionally longer—that depict the beloved’s tribe and its camels embarking on a journey.
It is evident from the corpus used in this study that the beloved’s male camel section was not a prevalent section in pre-Islamic poetry.Footnote 38 Individual beloved’s male camel section motifs seldom coalesced into cohesive sections, as in the poetry of Mulayh b. al-Hakam. In most poems of this period, one or two motifs related to the beloved’s male camel section can be identified within the same composition. Occasionally, we find three in a single poem, albeit succinct, but their focus is not the preparations for departure as in the beloved’s male camel sections in the poetry of Mulayh and others, but the conversation between the two lovers on the day of departure.Footnote 39
The fragments in these poems are diverse, quickly shifting to describe motifs unrelated to the preparations of the beloved’s tribe for departure. Such brief references to individual beloved’s male camel section motifs are seen in many pre- and early Islamic poems. Among those mentioned here are announcement by the tribe (particularly by its leaders) of departure,Footnote 40 the lover’s gut response to this announcement,Footnote 41 the tribe (sometimes its female slaves) bringing the herd back from pasture,Footnote 42 and the tribe assembling its camels, possibly near each member’s tent, in preparation for departure.Footnote 43
Others motifs highlight internal tribal disputes related to the impending departure,Footnote 44 tethering of the camels,Footnote 45 their readiness for departure,Footnote 46 the swift preparations,Footnote 47 decorated palanquins,Footnote 48 decorating the palanquins,Footnote 49 and embellishing both the palanquins and the women inside them.Footnote 50 There is also a description of the she-camels used for milk congregating prior to departure,Footnote 51 the lover inquiring about ownership of the camels harnessed for the journey,Footnote 52 exchanges between lover and beloved in her palanquin,Footnote 53 and between the departing women and their lovers,Footnote 54 a swift departure that denies the lovers their farewell,Footnote 55 and description of the time when the beloved’s tribe was encamped in the area.Footnote 56
Further motifs reflect the beauty of the beloved on the day she leaves,Footnote 57 the departing women,Footnote 58 and the women gathering around the ghirrīd (the camel-driver) before leaving, listening to his melodic songs.Footnote 59 They depict the beloved holding her male camel’s reins and leaning the beast toward her women friends, although it is unclear whether this occurs before or during her departure,Footnote 60 and the lover pleading with his beloved mounted on her camel, for a farewell meeting.Footnote 61 The use of distinct motifs, without culminating in a comprehensive scene, became even more common during the Umayyad period.
The Beloved’s Male Camel Section in Umayyad Poetry
In Umayyad poetry, the beloved’s male camel section is more prominent, appearing as a recurring section in the works of several poets. In the corpus examined, twenty-two poems by Umayyad-era poets feature beloved’s male camel sections. Seventeen of these poets lived until the end of the Umayyad period (from 105/723–24 to 130/747), perhaps representing the era’s younger generation.
An overview of the structure and components of the beloved’s male camel section in this era is presented in Table 2.
Structure of the beloved’s male camel section in Umayyad poetry
As Table 2 shows, by the Umayyad era, the beloved’s male camel section has become robust and comprehensive. It is used by several Umayyad poets, in contrast to the rare instances of pre-Umayyad times. Notably, individual poets incorporate it into several of their poems, a trend not witnessed in earlier periods.
A defining feature of the beloved’s male camel sections in the poetry of Mulayh, observed too in Umayyad poems, is their distinct linear or near-linear structure. This sets them apart from other interpretations of the section, offering a more straightforward narrative progression.Footnote 62 In these sections, the narrative is strictly chronological, adhering to a typical a–b–c–d pattern, from the earliest action to the most recent. In Mulayh’s poem no. 4, for example, the tribe’s announcement of departure is succeeded by the folding of its tents, assembling its camels, and preparations for travel. The women then approach the palanquins, the beloved attempts to mount her camel and enter her palanquin, the camel stands, and the lover makes an unsuccessful attempt to bid his departing beloved farewell.
All Mulayh’s poems and most of those in Table 2 exhibit this linearity, with only occasional and minor deviations. In Mulayh’s poem no. 6, for example, the beloved’s male camel section begins with the camels returning from pasture, followed by the poet-lover recalling an earlier experience that parallels the beloved’s departure. The other motifs related to the same section then appear chronologically. Similarly, Dhu al-Rumma’s section (text no. 14, Table 2) opens by describing the beloved’s tribe moving out and bidding farewell to the lover’s tribe. After this, the poet-lover sequentially recalls events leading up to the departure. In these poems, the beloved’s male camel section is almost linear, its pattern “b–a–c–d…”
In only two instances in the Umayyad corpus is the beloved’s male camel section sequence interrupted by verses in which the poet-lover expresses his emotional response to the scene. While such disruptions are absent from the beloved’s male camel narrative of Mulayh’s poetry, they are found in poem no. 34 by al-Tirimmah (text no. 19, Table 2). This poem opens with dismantling the tents of the beloved’s tribe in preparation for departure (verse 1), but the action is briefly paused to depict the lover’s sorrow over the impending separation and the tears he sheds (verses 2–10). The narrative does not resume until verse 11, when the departure preparations continue. Another Umayyad poem that follows this structure is poem no. 3 by Jamil b. Maʿmar (text no. 3, Table 2). This linear or near-linear structure is also seen in pre-Umayyad poetry.
A comparison between the beloved’s male camel sections in Mulayh’s poems and those from the Umayyad period reveals the uniqueness of Mulayh’s treatment of this section. It is shaped by three primary elements:
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1. Strong emphasis on the section itself: Mulayh incorporates the beloved’s male camel section in half of his compositions, a significantly higher percentage than any Umayyad poet, none of whom produced so large a proportion of poems featuring this section.
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2. Consistent positioning of the section: In five of six poems by Mulayh, the beloved’s male camel section is placed at the beginning. In poem nos. 2 and 3, it directly initiates the poem, while in the other three, it follows an introduction that depicts the beloved’s traveling caravan (ẓaʿāʾin). Only in poem no. 5 does it appear mid-poem, following accounts of the beloved’s aṭlāl and her lover’s emotional state (verses 1–10), without includng the ẓaʿāʾin. In contrast, the beloved’s male camel section occurs mid-poem in seventeen of the twenty-two Umayyad poems. While its placement in the middle does not reduce its significance, it does impact its prominence.
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3. Meticulous detail: Mulayh’s sections are exceptionally detailed, with the number of verses dedicated to them surpassing the average for that in both the Umayyad and pre-Umayyad periods. Additionally, the complexity and number of components in the beloved’s male sections in Mulayh’s poetry are more elaborate than those in the work of his contemporaries.
In three of Mulayh’s six compositions (poem nos. 1, 2, and 4), the beloved’s male camel sections span twenty to thirty verses, a length matched in only two other poems in the entire Umayyad corpus—that by Humayd b. Thawr al-Hilali (text no. 2, Table 2) and by al-ʿArji’s poem no. 6 (text no. 16, Table 2). Particularly noteworthy is Humayd’s poem, which features an eighty-four-verse beloved’s male camel section, a length exceptional for this genre.Footnote 84 I have studied the content and structure of this poem extensively. Although the poetry of Humayd is not unique in general, this work stands out not least for its humor, which includes an exaggerated portrayal of the beloved’s large figure as she struggles to enter her palanquin.
In most Umayyad poems, however, the beloved’s male camel sections are considerably shorter, with eighteen of them (82 percent) running fewer than fifteen verses, twelve of these fewer than ten verses. This serves to underscore Mulayh’s distinctive tendency toward more expansive and detailed treatment of the beloved’s male camel section, compared with his contemporaries.
It suggests that the structure of the beloved’s male camel sections in the Umayyad corpus was typically more concise, with the content becoming increasingly diverse among younger Umayyad poets. While the approach of earlier poets, such as Mulayh and Humayd b. Thawr al-Hilali, was more elaborate and detailed, later compositions show a trend toward brevity. This diversification in the section’s treatment may indicate broader poetic experimentation, with younger poets exploring different ways of incorporating the beloved’s male camel motif without depending on the extensive narrative framework of their predecessors.
The Bride and Her Pursuing Lover in Poems with the Beloved’s Male Camel Sections
I conclude by addressing three additional issues related to the beloved’s male camel section. The first concerns poems in which these sections portray the beloved as a future wife, rather than a departing lover—in contrast to the conventional ẓaʿāʾin section, where the beloved leaves with her tribe in search of new pastures. The second centers on the lover-protagonist, who, after recounting the beloved’s male camel section, embarks on a desert journey that is distinct from the traditional camel journey of classical Arabic odes. The third and final issue examines a specific poem featuring a humorous beloved’s male camel section, although the poet’s identity is unknnown, complicating efforts to situate the poem within a recognizable biographical or historical context.
The first issue is seen in a poem by Humayd b. Thawr which portrays a romantic relationship between the poet-protagonist and a bride being prepared for her marriage. The poem describes the bride as she is readied for the journey to her husband’s home, with a detailed depiction of the camel brought to transport her.
Significant verses are devoted to admiration of the camel’s palanquin by the women surrounding the bride. A substantial portion of the poem centres on the women approaching the beloved, urging her to rise and go to the camel. After initially refusing, she complies and makes her way toward the palanquin. The narrative captures her languid gait as the women accompany her and emphasizes her beauty in scrupulous detail.
Subsequent verses detail her efforts to climb into the palanquin, along with assistance provided by the women. The poem culminates in a vivid depiction of the camel struggling to stand under the weight of the large palanquin and the heavy bride. In my analysis of the poem, I conclude that the woman represents a bride whose camel and palanquin have been readied to take her to her new husband’s abode. I support this interpretation by highlighting the collective efforts of the women to decorate the palanquin and the care they exhibit in assisting the beloved as she mounts her camel before they mount their own.Footnote 85
Based on this interpretation of Humayd’s poem and another by al-Rahhal, which also features a beloved’s male camel section related to a marrying bride and will be discussed later, it is proposed that these sections recount the beloved’s marriage into another tribe rather than simply illustrating her departure with her own.
Al-Qutami’s poem no. 37, included in the selected corpus for this study, presents a similar narrative. In this poem, the tribe’s women encourage the beloved to ride in her palanquin. After an initial refusal, she complies, moving dreamily and shyly. The attempts of the male camel to stand are recounted, with the women marveling at the beast’s strength when he succeeds, mirroring their wonder in Humayd b. Thawr’s poem.
Mulayh’s poems do not follow this narrative structure, although his poem no. 4 contains elements that resonate to some extent with the previously mentioned content. In this poem, he describes in detail the beauty of the beloved, how she sways toward the palanquin and attempts to mount the camel (verses 16–26), with the women earlier depicted preparing the camels for departure (verses 6–14). In verse 27, however, they direct the camels toward the beloved’s male camel, as if encircling it.
While this could be interpreted as a bride leaving for her husband’s abode, certain motifs fail to align. The women preparing the camels do so not only for the beloved but also for the tribe’s other women, whose access to their palanquins is detailed in verse 15. Toward the end of the beloved’s male camel section, the poet-protagonist speaks of the departing tribe of the beloved rather than the beloved herself (verse 31), implying a collective departure and emphasizing that the narrative captures a broader context of the tribe’s movements than solely that of the beloved.
The second issue concerns the lover-protagonist trailing his beloved’s caravan, and trying to meet her in secret, or at least obtain a final glance. Mulayh’s poem no. 5 features this kind of narrative, as he observes his beloved’s tribe preparing for departure. When the caravan leaves, he urges his camel to catch up and, along with his comrades, reaches the water-source where the tribe will rest. The women, the beloved among them, catch sight of the lover and his friends from their palanquins, allowing him to plead with her to guide her camel to a safe rendezvous (verses 26–39).
This narrative occurs more often in the beloved’s male camel sections than in those depicting the beloved as a bride. It is found in six poems, including that of Mulayh, as well as in others with only fragmentary beloved’s male camel motifs. In the complete poems, the poet-lover often begins by describing the camel he rides or instructing his comrades to fetch him a strong beast for his journey. The narrative typically concludes with either his encounter with his beloved or the intense glances she casts in his direction.Footnote 86
The third issue concerns a work attributed to an anonymous poet known as al-Rahhal. It is first referenced by Abu Saʿid al-Sukkari in the dīwān of Jiran al-ʿAwd al-Numayri (date of death unknown), a classical Arab poet known for a work that critiques his troubled relationships with his two wives.Footnote 87 Al-Sukkari notes that Jiran al-ʿAwd and al-Rahhal were close friends and companions, both having endured difficult marriages. During a meeting between the two poets, each recited a poem reflecting their unhappy relationships.Footnote 88
The beloved’s male camel section in the poem by al-Rahhal humorously depicts the tribe preparing his bride for their wedding day and bringing her to him. While using this motif to describe a bride’s journey is not unique to this poem, al-Rahhal’s distinctive and comedic presentation sets it apart. The poet-protagonist, on lifting his bride’s garments, discovers that she is not as beautiful as he had imagined, resembling a young male figure (ghulām) more than she does than a woman. Regretting his choice of wife, he expresses his frustration toward the male camel that brought her to him.
The section begins in the poem’s second verse, vividly portraying the camel chosen by the tribe’s women to transport the bride. The beast is brought to the woman (verse 2), its sturdiness and heft are described (verse 2), the women plead for its cooperation as they ready it (verse 3), and the bride makes her leisurely way toward it (verses 4–6). The poet-protagonist curses the male camel that brings him his bride (verse 7), the decorative palanquin in which the bride sits (verse 8), and her chatter and that of her women companions (verse 9). He curses the bride’s false beauty and her embellishments (verses 10–14), lamenting the moment she was brought to him (verse 15).
Several key elements of the beloved’s male camel section are manifest here, interwoven to create a distinct section within the poem rather than being swiftly embedded motifs. In this poem, however, there is no suggestion of genuine love or longing in the lover when he realizes that his beloved’s tribe is leaving and instead pays close attention to the departure preparations. This section evokes emotions contrary to those in others studied here—a sense of regret for the beloved’s departure for her husband’s home.
Biographical information about Jiran al-ʿAwd is limited, but he is regarded as either a pre-Islamic poet or a mukhaḍram. Footnote 89 The details surrounding al-Rahhal’s biography are even more ambiguous, with the exact identity of the poet a subject of debate.Footnote 90 Given that Jiran is an acknowledged pre-Islamic or early Islamic poet and considering the anecdote related by al-Sukkari, it may be concluded that al-Rahhal, too, was a pre-Islamic or mukhaḍram poet. His works should thus be recognized as the earliest extant examples of narrating a cohesive beloved’s male camel section.
The presence of a substantial corpus of poems from pre- and early Islamic periods, featuring only a single poem with a developed but unique structural section (characteristic of later Arabic poetry), does, however, raise significant questions. Key among them is: Why have classical Arabic anthologies and medieval literary works not preserved similar poems? And why are there no surviving poems from the period that include a similarly developed structural segment of the beloved’s male camel section?
In this regard, several key points regarding this poem by al-Rahhal must be considered. First, biographical data about this poet are scarce and uncertain. Second, the introductory anecdotes that accompany classical Arabic poems are not always reliable; they are often later compositions aimed at interpreting an older poem. This has been explored in various modern research contexts, with one of the more detailed discussions by Akiko Motoyoshi Sumi, who examines the reliability of anecdotes linked to pre-Islamic poetry and questions traditional interpretations. She highlights how these narratives can influence our understanding of the poets and their work. This perspective is crucial for reevaluating biographical information of poets like al-Rahhal and the authenticity of the contexts in which their poems were created.Footnote 91 Third, the nature of this poem contradicts the developmental trajectory of the beloved’s male camel section in Arabic poetry, as outlined in the present study. The structural and content characteristics of this poem align with those of works from the Umayyad era. Further, the humorous elements of this poem are reminiscent of the comedic style found in the work of Humayd b. Thawr al-Hilali.
These observations indicate two main conclusions: Either we must reevaluate the timeframe for this poem’s composition and attribute it to the Umayyad era at the earliest, or we should regard it as pioneering work from the pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetic heritage, paving the way for detailed imitation of this structural segment in the Umayyad era. There are, however, many reasons to approach this latter conclusion with caution.
Conclusions
At the outset of this article, I addressed the complex issue of the authenticity of classical Arabic poetry. The findings of this study suggest that distinct characteristics define different groups of poems, which medieval Arabic scholars classified as belonging to various historical periods. While this study does not directly engage with the question of authenticity, its textual analysis highlights structural and thematic differences between poetry attributed to Umayyad poets and that of earlier periods. In other words, examining specific textual elements—such as the beloved’s male camel section—can offer insights into the authenticity of certain poetic corpora and contribute to their historical contextualization and dating.
Taking this into consideration, several conclusions may be drawn from this study. First, the origins of the beloved’s male camel section can be traced to pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetry, where it consists of fragments or individual motifs that briefly and sporadically appear in poems without forming a complete section. These motifs continued to be used by Umayyad poets even after the concept of a beloved’s male camel section was established. Second, the beloved’s male camel section emerges as a defining characteristic of Umayyad poetry, surpassing the poetics of the preceding era and often being longer and more detailed than its pre-Umayyad counterparts. Third, younger generations of Umayyad poets paid greater attention to shaping the beloved’s male camel section than did their predecessors, especially those who lived into the latter half of the Umayyad era. An exception is the long humoristic poem by Humayd b. Thawr, who likely died toward the end of the third decade of Umayyad rule. Fourth, the beloved’s male camel section is more emblematic of Mulayh’s poetry than of any other Umayyad or pre-Umayyad poet, adding an extra dimension to his work and highlighting distinctive trends within Umayyad poetry. Lastly, the study helps date the period of composition for Mulayh’s six poems with their beloved’s male camel sections, suggesting that although he lived before the Umayyad era, at least the first six poems in his dīwān should be considered Umayyad compositions, potentially influencnig younger Umayyad poets, who were exploring similar forms of composition. The same conclusion can be drawn regarding the above poem attributed to al-Rahhal, which also appears to be an Umayyad literary work.
The structural differences in the use of the beloved’s male camel section during the Umayyad era compared with the pre-Umayyad period can be viewed as part of a broader effort to evolve the pre- and early Islamic qaṣīda. The classical qaṣīda underwent significant development during the Umayyad era in various ways, including the emergence of the independent ghazal—a form entirely dedicated to the theme of love, which became emblematic of the poetry of this period.Footnote 92 Additionally, new genres such as the ṭardiyya (hunting poem),Footnote 93 khamriyya (wine poem),Footnote 94 and naqāʾiḍ (satirical flytings)Footnote 95 emerged, alongside poetry reflecting the growing influence of religious sects.Footnote 96 The Umayyads left a lasting imprint on the structure and content of the Arabic qaṣīda, with their evolution of the beloved’s male camel section representing just one facet of this rich poetic transformation.
A crucial question arises: What cultural, political, intellectual, or literary developments in the Umayyad era prompted the emergence of these newly shaped literary genres in general, and the evolution of the beloved’s male camel section in particular? This is beyond the scope of this article. Answering it would require a multidisciplinary approach, involving historians, anthropologists, and literary scholars, to examine the societal and other conditions that fostered these innovations. Unfortunately, the limited available data may preclude a definitive answer. Nonetheless, there is no doubt that the Umayyad period left a clear mark on Arabic literature. Through these innovations, Umayyad poets not only preserved the essence of the qaṣīda but also redefined its possibilities, ensuring its continued relevance in the Arabic literary tradition.
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