Introduction

It is now increasingly appreciated that the production of microliths has continued in many local contexts down into early historical times (Reference CammiadeCammiade 1924; Reference GordonGordon 1950; Todd 1950; Fairservis 1971 cited in Reference CooperCooper 1997). In some cases the knappers have adapted modern materials (such as bottle glass) to their purpose (Todd 1932 cited in Reference KrishnaswamiKrishnaswami 1947: 37; Cooper & Sandra 1998). For example, the modern use of lithic technology has been recorded among the Veddas of Sri Lanka (Reference DeraniyagalaDeraniyagala 1988, 1992; Blundell 2006). In the district of Mandla (22°12' to 23°22'N and 79°57' to 81°45'E) in Madhya Pradesh, a series of open sites has been recently discovered (Reference RoyRoy 2003) with evidence for the continuation of the Mesolithic tradition/technology until the early twentieth century.

The Mandla sites

Mesolithic/microlithic remains are quite common over the central Indian tract, bounded by the Satpura Ranges on the south and Vindhyan on the north — an area that now mostly constitutes the state of Madhya Pradesh. Numerous sites have been discovered over a wide area, for example, Baghor (Shidi district), Chitrakot (Chattrishgarh, a separate state), Barasimla (Jabalpur), Sayamla hills (Bhopal) and Bhimbetka (Sehore) (Reference ChakravartyChakravarty 1984; Reference CooperCooper 1997).

In 2001–2, some 17 microlithic sites were discovered for the first time in Mandla along the river Narmada, in which it could be shown that the microlithic tradition had continued until modern times. Porcelain from Electrical Porcelain Insulators (EPI) was found to have been used as a substitute for stone. Some 200 odd pieces, mostly debitage, on EPI (Figure 1) were recovered from Gadhar forest site (22°44'19.74" to 44'20.77"N and 80°19' 07.44" to 19"12.40'E) along with stone microliths.

Figure 1.

Microliths on EPI.

At least six different types of EPI were used suggesting a systematic practice (Figure 2). To make blades from porcelain, the outer glazed coat was first removed to prepare the striking platform. Typical dorsal and ventral features and secondary retouch/ trimming undisputedly confirm Stone Age technology (Figures 3 and 4). A series of parallel-ridged tiny flake scars suggests the use of a typical pressure flaking technique. Other assemblages from the Mandla sites discovered so far contain stone microliths (Figure 5) and some Palaeolithic tools (Figure 6).

Figure 2.

Different Electrical Porcelain Insulator (EPI) types used in microlith manufacture. At least five types are recognisable on the basis of the type of neck groove and profile.

Figure 3.

A micro-point and blade from an EPI. The dorsal side of the blade bears the flake scar of previous removal.

Figure 4.

A core on EPI showing parallel sided flake scares of previous removal. These flake scars confirm the use of Mesolithic technology.

Figure 5.

Microliths in stone from different Mandla sites.

Figure 6.

Larger tools in stone from Manadei.

Discussion: continuity or re-invention?

In the absence of stratigraphy, any claims for continuity of practice must remain uncertain. Some of the stone tools had evidently been reused by later groups: fresh flaking was noticed on highly patinated tools (e.g. in Manadei). The successive flaking marks found in some of the large tools found in Manadei are convincingly not the accidental edge-damages or caused by recent historical use of recycled ancient tools, although some stone objects could be adapted as strike-a-lights. Reference BrummBrumm (2006: 170) in his observations in the Soa Basin of Flores reiterated Glover and Ellen’s conclusion that 'ethnographic and historical evidence for the use of recycled stone artifacts as strike-a-lights in Island Southeast Asia is not lacking, and ought to be considered when edge-damage patterns of stone tools are being examined'. In Mandla, strike-a-lights are still used by the tribal population. The Kadar, a hunter-gatherer tribe, continued to use a piece of steel, a bit of quartz and the floss from the fronds of Palmyra palm or brab tree carried in a scooped out seed of Entada scandns to make fire until the late nineteenth century (Reference Sankara MenonSankara Menon 1931). Verrier Elwin 2002 (1937) described the Baiga method of fire-making using a piece of steel, a piece of quartz, and a lump of simul cotton, a practice is still continuing in the remote Baiga land in Mandla and Dindori districts. The stone type, locally called 'chai-pathar', used in fire-making remained the same that was once used in microlithic manufacture. The requisite stone is scavenged from many of the archaeological sites of the area.

The use of electrical insulators as raw material shows that it is the practice of knapping that has survived and has been certainly applied in early modern times. It might be deduced that the aboriginal tribes inhabiting the district could be the direct descendents of prehistoric stone users. However, apart from fire-making, the current Mandla tribes have virtually no knowledge of the uses quartz or flint (chert) pieces that are profusely found in the district. The only other occasion when the chert/flint pieces are used is when the sharp edge of a freshly struck stone is used in folk surgery.

Given such a recent historical use of microlithic technology, it is surprising that none of the tribes in the district could recall anything about it. This raises important archaeological and ethnological questions to engage our interests in coming years.