Introduction. In Malaysia, Limau Madu (Citrus reticulata Blanco; Citrus suhuiensis Hort. ex Tanaka) is commercially cultivated for local consumption. It is a loose-peel mandarin with fruits that are spherical in shape with shiny green or greenish yellow peel. In Malaysia, Limau Madu is vegetatively propagated, thus it is presumed to exhibit minimal variability. In our study, the genetic variability and genetic relatedness among cultivated samples collected from different states in Malaysia were assessed using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) primers. Materials and methods. Thirty pairs of SSR primers derived from Citrus unshiu were screened and 22 SSR primer pairs were utilized to assess genetic variability and relatedness among 118 cultivated samples. Results and discussion. The percentage of SSR transferability from C. unshiu to C. reticulata (Limau Madu) was 73.33%, which indicated that the primer sequences flanking simple sequence repeats were conserved among these Citrus species. Most SSR loci revealed a large excess of heterozygotes. In our study, low allelic diversity was shown, with an average of 5.227 alleles per locus. Polymorphic information content (PIC) ranged from 0.048 to 0.674. Based on UPGMA clustering analysis, four groups were identified from these citrus genotypes with a mean genetic distance of 0.170. Low genetic variability within species was probably due to vegetative propagation or inability to detect differences among samples using these primers.

Introduction. Senegal produces up to 150,000 t of fruit, of which 60,000 t are mangoes. Fruit production is important for the Niayes region, where 60% of total production is of mangoes, with citrus production coming next at 24%. Mango losses have become more substantial since the arrival of Bactrocera invadens in Senegal. The pest population increases in the mango ripening period, but little is known about its secondary hosts. Materials and methods. Fruits of cultivated and wild plants were collected regularly from April to December 2008 inside and around 19 orchards in eleven localities in the Niayes and Thiès areas in Senegal. The samples were monitored to identify any fruit flies present so that a list of host plants could be compiled. For mango, the study focused on establishing the influence of certain parameters such as the variety, the fruit size, the color, the flowering pattern and the physiological levels of infestation due to B. invadens and Ceratitis cosyra. Orchards were classified either as traditional (many mango varieties and many fruit species grown together in a stand) or intensive (fields of monovarietal mango trees), according to their composition and how they were managed. Results and discussion. A total of 663.2 kg of fruit, including those of 24 mango varieties, 13 citrus species with five lime varieties, two orange varieties and four pomelo varieties along with other cultivated and wild plants, were sampled both as fallen fruit and from the trees. Traditional orchards were more infested than the modern ones. B. invadens was significantly dominant over the other flies emerging such as C. cosyra, C. capitata, C. punctata, C. bremii, Bactrocera cucurbitae, Capparimyia bipustulata, Carpomyia sp. and Dacus sp. B. invadens was found on the 24 varieties of Mangifera indica, the 13 citrus species, and the other cultivated plants and wild plants sampled. Some host plants supported a relatively high level of fruit flies before the mango ripening period. Mangifera indica was infested principally by B. invadens and C. cosyra. C. cosyra was significantly present on the first fruit trees to flower, mostly in early varieties, while B. invadens infested all the varieties whatever the fruit development stage, the color, or the flowering pattern. Conclusion. Because of the host plants' diversity and varieties the traditional orchards were more infested than the modern ones. The management of this pest needs an Integrated Pest Management system based on a back-to-basics study of the infesting fruit flies, existing parasitoids and their hosts.

Introduction. Concerns about the potentially harmful effects of fungicides on human health and the environment encourage the search for alternative treatments for perishable fruit postharvest disease control. To this end, the potential use of oligochitosan as a natural antifungal compound to control postharvest anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum musae was investigated in banana fruits from the Cavendish group (genome AAA). Materials and methods. The influence of oligochitosan on the growth of C. musae was determined in vitro by micrographic analysis, while its in situ antifungal activity was monitored in banana fruits that were artificially injury-inoculated with C. musae; the activities of several defense-related enzymes were measured. Results and discussion. Oligochitosan at (4 and 8) g·L–1 markedly inhibited radial mycelial growth of C. musae in vitro. The scanning electron micrograph of C. musae treated with oligochitosan at inhibitory concentrations showed distortion and thinning of the hyphal wall and reduction in fungus colony diameter. Dipping banana fruits in oligochitosan solution at (5 to 20) g·L–1 significantly reduced the diameter of the anthracnose lesion, and 20 g oligochitosan·L–1 almost reached the same inhibitory effect as 0.5 g·L–1 of Sportak®, a synthetic fungicide. Activities of defense-related enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), β-1, 3-glucanase (GLU) and chitinase (CHT), but not polyphenol oxidase (PPO), increased in banana fruits treated with 0.5 g oligochitosan·L–1. Conclusion. The inhibitory effect of oligochitosan on anthracnose development is due to the combination of a direct antifungal effect on the pathogen and an indirect effect, whereby the activities of defense-related enzymes in the banana fruit were enhanced. To control anthracnose in harvested bananas, treatment with oligochitosan above 20 g·L–1 may substitute the use of synthetic fungicide.

Introduction. Black plum (Vitex doniana) is an indigenous fruit tree species important for the livelihoods of rural populations. Currently, there is renewed national and international interest in black plum, and it has emerged as a priority species for domestication in Africa. The present work addressed farmers’ indigenous knowledge of the use and management of the species among different socio-cultural groups in Benin, taking into account gender differences. The specific objective of this work was to study the knowledge, uses, local gathering practices and management systems of V. doniana that are part of the traditions of the communities in Southern Benin. Materials and methods. A total of 150 participants randomly selected from three socio-cultural groups provided survey responses. Information collected mainly referred to the motivation of respondents to conserve black plum trees on their land, the local uses and the management practices to improve the regeneration and production of the black plum. Results and discussion. The study showed that knowledge of black plum is well distributed in the community. However, people have different interests in using black plum and there is variable knowledge of use and management practices. The food and medicinal categories were the most important uses. There were no significant differences in knowledge of the management and utility of black plum between men and women, or across socio-cultural groups. Conclusion. Given its value to the communities in southern Benin, black plum should be prioritized for domestication.

Introduction. Because of the long transportation times and storage durations that are often experienced, it is important to understand how pomelo properties change over time; that will be indicative of how long samples can be stored before they drop below acceptable quality limits. As no information is available regarding storage of pomelo fruit in the literature, the goal of our work was to study the change in pomelo physicochemical and textural properties following storage over a period of approximately 4 months. Materials and methods. The changes in physical, chemical and textural properties of commercial pomelo fruit were extensively evaluated over the course of a 4-month storage period. The correlation among physical, color, chemical and textural properties were also assessed. Results. Color properties (L*, a*, b*) changed significantly with storage; however, they did not change much during the initial 45 days of storage. The change in soluble solids content (SSC), acidity (A) and the [(SSC) / (A)] ratio suggested that pomelo fruit should not be stored for more than 75 days. Crucially, our study demonstrates that the a* parameter (greenness, R = –0.556) correlates best with the chemical property the [(SSC) / (A)] ratio, which is a recognized measurement of the consumer acceptability of citrus fruit. This means that measuring a* is a non-destructive way of monitoring the taste characteristics of pomelos in storage. This property also correlated well with the average firmness of the fruit and with the flesh texture. Conclusion. This fundamental information on the pomelo fruit could prove useful in the physical handling and processing of the fruit by breeders and postharvest technologists as well as distributors, market agents, importers and exporters.

Introduction. Au Bénin, le régime alimentaire des populations est déficient en vitamines et minéraux; la consommation de fruits et légumes pourrait constituer un moyen efficace pour éviter les carences nutritionnelles et prévenir les maladies chroniques. Dans un tel contexte, il importait d’étudier le volume de consommation des fruits et légumes au Bénin et d’évaluer les liens existant entre leur disponibilité, leur prix et leur acquisition par les ménages. Nous nous sommes intéressés à l’autoconsommation des fruits produits dans une région du Bénin, le plateau d’Allada. Matériel et méthodes. Les différentes espèces fruitières cultivées sur le plateau d’Allada ont été identifiées. Leur disponibilité a été évaluée et mise en relation avec leur consommation en s’appuyant sur une enquête régionale portant sur un échantillon de 120 chefs d’exploitation agricole répartis sur quatre communes de la région. Résultats. L’autoconsommation nette des fruits cultivés localement par chacun des ménages producteurs a été évaluée à 31,6 kg par an. Parmi les 15 espèces fruitières recensées, les plus consommées se sont révélées être la mangue (13,3 kg par personne et par an, 42 %), la banane (7,6 kg par personne et par an, 18 %), l’orange (8 %) et l’avocat (7 %). Aucune corrélation significative n’a été établie entre la consommation et la production des fruits. En revanche, une très forte corrélation a été mise en évidence entre la production et la quantité de fruits commercialisée, et une corrélation négative significative a été trouvée entre la quantité de fruits produits et leur prix de vente. Le bilan entre production et consommation a fait apparaître une marge positive pour l’orange, l’ananas, le tangelo et la papaye, ce qui signifie que ces productions sont avant tout marchandes; seule une part résiduelle de ces récoltes est réservée à l’autoconsommation. La plus grande partie des autres productions fruitières consommées par les ménages du plateau d’Allada doivent être importée. Discussion. Sur le plateau d’Allada, malgré une forte production de certains fruits, leur consommation par les ménages agricoles est faible et peu diversifiée par rapport à leur disponibilité et se situe bien en deçà des normes recommandées par l’OMS. Il sera nécessaire de mieux étudier les déterminants d’une telle distorsion pour mieux guider les politiques publiques, ainsi que les choix des producteurs et des consommateurs, afin d’assurer un meilleur régime alimentaire aux populations locales.

Introduction. In the water-saving and income-generating agroforestry cropping systems developed and promoted by the ICRISAT in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of West Africa, particularly in Niger, fruits of domesticated Ziziphus mauritiana (“apples of the Sahel”) are severely damaged by fruit flies (Carpomya incompleta), and chemical pesticide application poses economic, environmental and human health problems. In the Bio-reclamation of Degraded Lands (BDL) system, apple of the Sahel is the main high-value crop, while in the Dryland Eco-Farm (DEF), it is grown alongside watermelon. Sclerocarya birrea (marula plum) is presently being investigated as a dryland tree species for fruit and oil production, either in orchards or such systems as BDL. Materials and methods. To complete preliminary results of earlier studies published elsewhere, we collected and incubated in 2010 ripe fruits of marula plum and watermelon in Sadoré, Niger, where the above-mentioned agroforestry systems are developed, and we recorded emerging fruit flies. We also conducted a spot-spraying experiment (using GF-120) in an apple of the Sahel orchard in Niamey in 2010; we recorded undamaged and damaged fruits and incubated the latter. In the same orchard, we set up in 2011 a fruit fly trapping survey targeting the invasive species Bactrocera invadens (Chempac® traps using methyl eugenol as the attractant). Results and discussion. The results showed that only Ceratitis cosyra emerged from marula plums, and only Dacus spp. from watermelon. The GF-120 spot-spraying experiment showed that C. incompleta was not attracted / intoxicated, contrary to Ceratitis spp. and Dacus spp.; the sprayed trees yielded significantly more marketable fruits than unsprayed ones; only C. incompleta emerged from damaged fruit. Detection trapping revealed for the first time the presence of B. invadens in the Sahelian zone of Niger, including at the time of apple of the Sahel fruit production. Conclusion. This, alongside results of earlier studies, suggests a repellent effect of GF-120 on the monophagous C. incompleta species (Trypetinae), while it is attractive to oligophagous/polyphagous Dacinae fruit flies; some of them (e.g., Dacus spp.) damage watermelon, which is part of the DEF system, and produce fruit at the same time as the jujube tree. The prospects for harnessing these two opposite regulation pathways are discussed.

Introduction. Natural beverages face strong competition from synthetic drinks in the open market. Creation of diversity in natural products is a key strategy to withstand this competition. Pummelo (Citrus grandis Linn.) is one such potential fruit which could be exploited on a commercial scale if processed properly. The bitterness of pummelo juice is a serious handicap in its utilization. The present study aimed at preparation of a cost-effective, palatable blended beverage of pummelo. Materials and methods. To overcome this problem, pummelo was blended with mango ginger and kokum juice in the ratio of [65:30:5] for the preparation of syrup. The product was stored for 120 days in ambient conditions of storage and analyzed for changes in its physicochemical constituents. Results and discussion. Total soluble solids and total sugar increased during storage, while titratable acidity and ascorbic acid content decreased slightly during storage. Organoleptically, the best recipe was 25% juice, 70 °Brix total soluble solids and 1.5% acidity with a score of 6.3 out of 7.0 for overall acceptability. Mango ginger juice suppressed the bitter aftertaste of pummelo juice and imparted its characteristic taste and flavor to the product. The product was shelf-stable and had important medicinal constituents in it. The [total revenue / total cost] ratio of the product was 2.90.

Introduction. Kiwifruit is a typical climacteric fruit, which grows profitably well in sub-temperate climatic conditions. The major problem with kiwifruit is that it does not ripen for about a week at room temperature but after this period there is a sudden rise in the respiration rate and fruits remain in edible condition for only a few days, giving it a very short shelf life in ambient conditions. Materials and methods. Kiwifruits were treated with different concentrations of spermine [(0.5, 1.0 and 1.5) mM] and spermidine [(1.0, 1.5 and 2.0) mM] by the immersion method; biochemical and physiological analyses were carried out, then fruit were stored in ambient conditions for 15 days. Results and discussion. Polyamine-treated fruits did not show any amount of ethylene evolution up to the 6th day of storage as compared with those of control, in which it started after the 3rd day of storage. The respiration rate was also the lowest in treated fruit. Similarly, polygalacturonase and lipoxygenase activities rose rapidly in control fruits in comparison with polyamine-treated fruits. Conclusion. The doses of spermine at 1.5 mM and spermidine at 2.0 mM showed the best results in extending the shelf life of kiwifruits when stored in ambient conditions [(22 ± 4) ◦C, RH: (65 ± 5)%].

The product. Coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) is an ancient tropical beverage whose original properties have drawn the attention of manufacturers as a natural functional drink. Preservation. This refreshing liquid comes mainly from immature coconuts which are difficult to collect, store and thus to commercialise. Nevertheless, some studies, mostly from Asian countries, tend to prove that the shelf life of immature coconut fruits could be prolonged thanks to post-harvest treatments. Processing. Coconut water itself, extracted from the nut, is obviously easier to handle but is also very sensitive to biological and chemical injuries. Thermal treatment combined with chemical additives are already used by the industry but other technologies such as micro- and ultrafiltration are not yet available on an industrial scale. Whatever the process, taste, aroma and colour (linked to enzymatic activities) are still difficult to control. Discussion. Results of former and recent investigations are discussed. Finally, suggestions are made for further research to increase our knowledge of this original tropical juice.

Introduction. Les populations de Kidal, au nord du Mali, traditionnellement nomades, s'orientent progressivement vers l'agriculture du fait de sécheresses récurrentes ; la culture du palmier dattier bien que représentée est encore peu élaborée dans cette région. Notre étude s'est inscrite dans le cadre des projets de développement de la phoeniciculture au nord du Mali. Elle a eu pour objectif de recenser et de caractériser les ressources phytogénétiques du palmier dattier afin d’envisager des stratégies de développement de ce patrimoine. Matériel et méthodes. Notre étude a été réalisée, dans la région de Kidal, dans neuf sites principaux connus depuis longtemps pour la culture du palmier dattier. Nous avons déterminé le nombre total de pieds observés dans la région, l’effectif des pieds productifs, la répartition des sexes, les cultivars représentés, l'âge des pieds et leurs périodes de maturation. Une caractérisation des principaux cultivars a été établie en se basant sur des caractères végétatifs et des caractères morphologiques des inflorescences, des fruits et des graines. Résultats et discussion. Nous avons recensé plus de 4000 palmiers dattiers dans la région échantillonnée ; les proportions de palmiers mâles se sont révélées élevées. Le site de Tessalit semble héberger la palmeraie la plus importante et la plus ancienne. Il présente 39 % de l'effectif total des palmiers dattiers recensés. Notre étude a permis d’identifier 18 cultivars. Les analyses factorielles des correspondances multiples sur la caractérisation des cultivars de la région de Kidal ont montré que la variabilité inter-cultivars semble être très importante quels que soient les caractères étudiés ; en revanche, la variabilité intra-cultivar est faible. Des proximités ont été définies entre les cultivars de Tigazas locaux et la Tigaza algérienne.

Introduction. Several studies have demonstrated that food processing affects nutrients such as bioactive compounds, protein, starch, fat, fiber, minerals and antioxidant capacity. Our study examined how heat changes the physicochemical composition and antioxidant capacity of peach-palm fruit (Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.) during flour production. Materials and methods. Five commercial batches of fruit were assessed for total contents of phenolic compounds and carotenoids, and hydrophilic oxygen radical absorbance capacity (H-ORAC). The fruit was then cooked and eventually processed into flour. Results and discussion. No significant changes were found for contents of fat, protein, starch and dietary fiber during flour production. Cooked peach-palm fruit is a source of Mg, Mn, Cu and K, with 100 g of fruit containing between 5% and 13.5% of the recommended daily intake. Cooking also increased carotenoids by 17%, thus helping to compensate for the 28% loss during drying. No stage of processing affected polyphenol contents or H-ORAC. Conclusion. Because of its high bioactive compound content, peach-palm flour shows potential for use in the development of functional foods.

Introduction. Plum cv. Santa Rosa shows climacteric behaviour and grows profitably under sub-temperate conditions in India. After ripening, it has a very limited shelf life (3–4 days) in ambient conditions [(38 ± 2) °C and at (68 ± 4)% RH]. Hence, there is an urgent need to extend its marketability using recent techniques. Materials and methods. Plums were harvested at the pre-climacteric and climacteric stages of maturity and packed with newspaper shreds (control), KMnO4-impregnated chalks, KMnO4-impregnated newspaper shreds or ethylene-absorbent sachets; then they were transported by road to New Delhi. The biochemical and physiological analyses were carried out at 3-day intervals on plums stored in supermarket conditions [(20 ± 1) °C and at (90 ± 2)% RH] for 15 days. Results and discussion. Untreated fruits had less firmness than those which were packed with ethylene absorbents. The activities of fruit-softening enzymes such as lipoxygenase (LOX), polygalacturonase (PG) and pectin methylesterase (PME) increased rapidly in the control treatment in comparison with plums packed with various ethylene absorbents, the least being either with ethylene-absorbent sachets or with KMnO4-impregnated newspaper shreds. Plums of pre-climacteric and climacteric maturity attained respiration and ethylene evolution peaks on the 9th day and 6th day, respectively. Conclusions. The plums of pre-climacteric and climacteric stages of maturity packed with ethylene-absorbent sachets showed the best results in supermarket conditions in maintaining the firmness, quality and shelf life of plum up to the 12th day and 9th day of storage, respectively.

Introduction. Papaya is grown mainly under tropical conditions due to its requirement of high temperatures year-round. With modern greenhouse technology and production systems, the Mediterranean countries are now able to produce many tropical crops such as banana and papaya. Such technology has also increased the yield and improved fruit quality in comparison with open field production systems. Materials and methods. Our study was conducted in an unheated greenhouse in the Mediterranean region of Turkey. Three papaya cultivars (‘SS-45’, ‘BH-65’ and ‘Sel-42’) were evaluated for their physical and physicochemical properties and yield. Results. There were no significant differences in chemical properties related to fruit cultivars. Conversely, certain features of the development cycle of these three cultivars varied: BH-65 flowered at only 65.4 cm compared with SS-45 (133.8 cm) and Sel-42 (135.1 cm). Fruit set was improved for Sel-42 (63.7 fruits) compared with SS-45 (49.3 fruits) and BH-65 (31.3 fruits). The corresponding yields for Sel-42, SS-45 and BH-65 were (28.3, 21.3 and 7.8) kg per plant, respectively. The Sel-42 cultivar presented the largest fruits (weight, 460.0 g; width, 11.7 cm; length, 16.7 cm), closely followed by those of SS-45 (433.3 g, 11.3 cm and 15.3 cm, respectively). In contrast, the cultivar BH-65 produced the smallest fruits (weight, 250.0 g; width, 9.7 cm; length, 13.3 cm). The physical and chemical characteristics did not vary among the cultivars. Conclusion. Our results allow us to recommend the cultivars Sel-42 and SS-45 for greenhouse cultivation under a Mediterranean climate in Turkey.