I

In the second chapter of the Spartan Constitution, Xenophon focusses on the education of children, the very first step of the Spartan agôgê. As is often the case in his writings, he bases his arguments on comparisons, which allows the reader to better grasp the particularities of Sparta’s constitution. In this treatise, the point of comparison is always ‘the other Greeks’ (τῶν ἄλλων Ἑλλήνων), and this is how Xenophon opens this chapter. This antithetical relationship underscores the originality and rarity of Spartan customs (or institutions, ἐπιτηδεύματα), embedded with explicit laudatory references.Footnote ¹ Among these other Greeks, those who claim to give their children the best education (κάλλιστα … παιδεύειν) place them under the care of a slave tutor and send them to school to learn letters, music and activities of the wrestling-school (καὶ γράμματα καὶ μουσικὴν καὶ τὰ ἐν παλαίστρᾳ, 2.1). Xenophon remains silent on these three types of training to develop the comparison between the other Greeks and the Spartans. It is worth quoting the passage in extenso, as it is the basis for our discussion:

This passage highlights the contrast between the educational practices of Spartans and other Greeks, emphasizing the unique aspects of the Spartan system. Xenophon completely ignores the teaching of letters, music and, more generally, training that concerns the soul (hereafter ‘intellectual training’), to focus on the physical training of the children.Footnote ³ At first sight, it seems quite puzzling that, in introducing Spartan children’s education, Xenophon dedicates considerable attention to the strengthening of the body, especially feet and legs. On this point as well, the contrast between Sparta and the rest of Greece deepens. In other Greek cities, physical education is clearly limited to activities in the wrestling-school (τὰ ἐν παλαίστρᾳ). Furthermore, children are always wearing shoes, and they are constantly changing clothes to protect themselves from cold and heat. In Sparta, conversely, the entire city becomes, so to speak, an open-sky training arena, so the children are always exercising, which incidentally explains young Spartans’ (ἡβῶντες) strange habit of sparring on the streets.Footnote ⁴ Moreover, the children are always barefoot and wear the same garment throughout the year to get accustomed, respectively, to rough grounds and variations in temperature.

A revealing parallel can be drawn between Socrates’ way of life (δίαιτα, Mem. 1.6) and the training of hunters, horsemen, hounds and horses. This comparison demonstrates both the coherence of Xenophon’s views on education and the significant emphasis he places on bodily vigour. Let us begin by examining the upbringing of Spartan children through the lens of a passage from the Memorabilia where Socrates discusses his physical endurance:

The parallel between Spartan children and Socrates reveals significant similarities in their habits. Both texts emphasize vocabulary related to strength (T1: κρατύνειν; T2: τῶν ἰσχυροτάτων, κρείττους) and weakness (T1: ἁπαλύνουσι, διαθρύπτουσι, ἁπαλύνειν, διαθρύπτεσθαι; T2: ἀσθενέστατοι). The striking similarity between Spartan children’s and Socrates’ dress habits serves the same purpose: hardening (καρτερεῖν) the body, particularly the feet, to enable walking on difficult terrain with ease and safety (T1), withstanding extreme weather conditions (T1 and T2) and enduring pain (T2).Footnote ⁶ True adaptation comes not from external factors like shoes and clothing, but from the body’s own adaptation; real change occurs at the physical level. Xenophon emphasizes regular exercise and preparation (cf. T1: ἀσκήσειαν, ἠσκηκώς, παρεσκευάσθαι; T2: μελετήσαντες and μελετῶσι), as means to achieve this adaptation, particularly through walking barefoot and wearing the same garment year-round.Footnote ⁷ Through these practices, both Socrates and Spartan children develop ponos and karteria, qualities valuable in warfare.Footnote ⁸

Their training is not limited to a specific time of day or the confined space of the arena. Rather, their training extends beyond specific times or confined spaces like the arena, integrating instead into their daily lives and occurring wherever they may be.Footnote ⁹ Ischomachus exemplifies this practice by combining physical exercise with the management of his oikos (Oec. 11.11–18). He emphasizes the value of walking (11.15): when he has business in the city, he uses it as an opportunity to walk (πραγματευόμενος περιπάτῳ τούτῳ χρῶμαι); when he has no urgent city matters, he sends his horse to the farm with a slave while he walks there himself (ἐγὼ δὲ περιπάτῳ χρῶμαι τῇ εἰς ἀγρὸν ὁδῷ). Ischomachus suggests this practice may be superior to walking in the arcade (ἄμεινον … ἢ εἰ ἐν τῷ ξυστῷ περιπατοίην), highlighting the advantages of outdoor physical activities. His habit of alternating between walking and running on his way home (τὰ μὲν βάδην τὰ δὲ ἀποδραμὼν οἴκαδε), reinforces the importance of lower body exercise. Earlier, Socrates had noted that agriculture promotes masculine vigour even among those who merely oversee fieldwork—as Ischomachus does—by requiring them to rise early and walk vigorously (πορεύεσθαι σφοδρῶς, Oec. 5.4).

Ischomachus applies similar principles when instructing his wife (10.10–11) not to sit idly like a slave (μὴ δουλικῶς ἀεὶ καθῆσθαι), but to stand at her loom as befits a mistress of the household (δεσποτικῶς πρὸς μὲν τὸν ἱστὸν προσστᾶσαν). He encourages her ‘to supervise the slave who makes bread (ἐπισκέψασθαι δὲ καὶ σιτοποιόν), to stand (παραστῆναι) next to the housekeeper when she is measuring out goods and to walk about the house (περιελθεῖν) and check (ἐπισκοπουμένην) whether everything is in its proper place’.Footnote ¹⁰ According to Ischomachus, this allows his wife to combine her duties with walking (ἅμα ἐπιμέλεια εἶναι καὶ περίπατος). He further notes that activities such as wetting and kneading bread, and folding and shaking out clothing and bed linen provide good physical training (ἀγαθὸν … γυμνάσιον), presumably strengthening the upper body as well. Regular exercise (γυμναζομένην), Ischomachus concludes, would make his wife enjoy her food better, improve her health (ὑγιαίνειν μᾶλλον) and give her a genuinely better complexion. Hence, Xenophon underscores the importance of combining physical exercise with daily activities for both men and women, echoing a passage from the Spartan Constitution:

In Sparta, physical training for women appears to be more toilsome, most probably takes place outdoors and presumably focusses on both the lower and upper body (cf. δρόμου καὶ ἰσχύος) to develop strength (ἰσχύς). Moreover, it is instituted by the State for eugenic purposes. In fact, since the administration of the oikos is reduced to a minimum, both men and women can dedicate themselves more fully to activities such as physical training. In the Oeconomicus, while the wife’s duties in the oikos, like her husband’s, primarily involve examination and supervision (cf. ἐπισκέψασθαι; ἐπισκοπουμένην) of slaves’ work, she is encouraged to participate in certain activities. This participation aims not at increasing production but at improving her health and bodily vigour—work befitting a free citizen and mistress of the oikos (cf. the adverb δεσποτικῶς). Xenophon emphasizes that both men and women should maintain an upright posture and walk frequently, underscoring the importance of lower-body training.Footnote ¹² Thus Spartans (children and adults), Socrates, Ischomachus and his wife all incorporate physical exercise into their daily routines rather than confining it to specific times or locations.

The integration of physical hardship into daily life is particularly evident in both Socrates and Spartan children: rather than temporarily removing their cloaks and shoes for brief training sessions, they consistently go barefoot and wear the same cloak, embracing constant hardship. This striking parallel between Socrates and Spartan children not only represents an ideal of radical austerity and asceticism but also demonstrates the coherence of Xenophon’s reasoning: one should train the body consistently because it serves all human activities. This idea is vividly illustrated in an anecdote in which Socrates criticizes a certain Epigenes (Memorabilia 3.12), a young man in poor physical condition (τὸ σῶμα κακῶς ἔχοντα, 3.12.1), for neglecting physical and military training merely because the city does not publicly mandate them, an implicit reference to Sparta’s state-controlled education. Xenophon’s emphasis on physical education is encapsulated in Socrates’ lesson to Epigenes (3.12.5): ‘The body is useful for all actions that human beings take; and in all the uses of the body it makes a lot of difference to have the body in as good condition as possible’ (ἐν πάσαις δὲ ταῖς τοῦ σώματος χρείαις πολὺ διαφέρει ὡς βέλτιστα τὸ σῶμα ἔχειν). The conception of good physical condition is crucial here, as it frequently appears alongside other key terms in the vocabulary of physical education, such as toil (πόνος), endurance (καρτερία) and good health (ὑγίεια).

II

The importance of regular physical exercise, particularly lower body training through walking and running, is further emphasized in the next chapter of the Memorabilia (3.13). In this chapter, Xenophon, through a series of brief anecdotes, portrays Socrates offering practical advice to his fellow citizens, primarily concerning daily conduct and habits. In the first anecdote, Xenophon recounts that when someone was afraid (φοβουμένου) of the road (ὁδόν) to Olympia, Socrates asked:

The journey from Athens to Olympia was traditionally made on foot, as evidenced by the prevalence of walking-related terminology in this passage. This mode of travel was arguably more physically demanding than horseback riding or sailing. In the present anecdote, Socrates attempts to encourage and normalize the pilgrimage to Olympia by comparing the distance between the two cities with the cumulative distance an individual typically covers while walking at home or elsewhere over the course of a day or week.Footnote ¹⁴ He thus highlights that people often travel considerable distances in their daily lives without conscious awareness. Socrates also suggests breaking the journey into manageable segments—walks before meals, interspersed with periods of rest—rendering the journey less daunting and more enjoyable. Through this relativization, Socrates demonstrates that even when individuals believe they are not actively exercising, they are, in fact, engaging in physical activity through routine movements such as running errands or walking within the home. This perspective aligns with the previously discussed notion of integrating physical training into daily life, and more importantly, with the broader principle that one should consistently strive for maximum activity. Movement is associated with health and vitality, while stillness and inactivity are linked to weakness, illness and ultimately death. Xenophon posits that walking is the most accessible and practical method of incorporating physical exercise into one’s daily routine. Notably, the benefits of walking and strolling are implied in a passage from his Symposium (9.1), where the young athlete Autolycos departs for a stroll (ἐξανίστατο εἰς περίπατον) during a pause in the conversation.Footnote ¹⁵ This act of strolling here symbolizes the importance of remaining active, even in moments of leisure, reinforcing the idea that movement is essential for physical fitness and good health.

In the second anecdote, Xenophon reports a conversation between Socrates and an anonymous fellow citizen:

The context of this passage—along with the use of the terms ὁδός (road) and ἀκόλουθος (follower), as well as the verbs πορεύω (to travel; to walk; to march) and ἀκολουθέω (to follow)—clearly indicates that Xenophon is describing a long and strenuous (cf. μακράν and παρετάθη) walking journey. To emphasize the disparity in physical endurance between the anonymous Athenian citizen and his servant, Xenophon skilfully employs three contrasts. The first juxtaposes the master, traveling unencumbered, with the servant, following behind while burdened with all the luggage. This opposition is further underscored by the lightness of the master’s cloak (τὸ ἱμάτιον) and the heaviness of the slave’s load (cf. φορτίον; τὰ στρώματα; σκεύη). The second contrast arises from the comparative βέλτιον, on one hand, and the terms κακῶς (badly) and παρετάθη (was exhausted), on the other, highlighting the slave’s vigour versus the master’s physical exhaustion, respectively. While Xenophon does not explicitly state that the young attendant remained untired, it is significant that he fared better (βέλτιον) than his master, who acknowledges his own inability to carry an equivalent load. The final contrast lies between the physical weakness of the anonymous citizen (cf. ἧττον τοῦ παιδὸς δύνασθαι πονεῖν) and the physical strength of his slave boy. My preferred translation of the last phrase preserves the rhetorical force of Socrates’ question and its underlying implication: he challenges his fellow citizen’s discipline in training by unfavourably comparing his endurance to that of a mere slave boy. The use of the noun pais further amplifies the contrast—how can an adult be significantly weaker than a boy? More critically, how can the master, traveling light, be exhausted, while the slave boy, carrying the entire burden, fares better?Footnote ¹⁷

With this anecdote, Xenophon appears to invite a comparison between the rigorous physical training of Spartans and that of Socrates with the general neglect of physical condition among Athenian citizens—a behaviour harshly criticized in the previous chapter through the character of Epigenes (Mem. 3.12).Footnote ¹⁸ In the first anecdote, Socrates explicitly connects the habit of walking to one’s ability to endure the journey from Athens to Olympia. It is reasonable to infer that the same principle underlies the lesson of the second anecdote: consistent walking, especially while carrying loads, progressively enhances endurance for travel. This explains why the slave boy developed superior strength compared to his master. Ultimately, these anecdotes illustrate that regular physical exercise is essential for effortlessly performing activities typical of a free man, such as traveling. They also reinforce the idea that physical training should be integrated into daily life rather than treated as a separate activity.

To support this interpretation, we can reference Cyropaedia 2.3, where Cyrus establishes a competition in physical and military prowess to prepare his army for future battles. Cyrus had already eliminated the traditional social distinction between Persian nobles (homotimoi) and commoners. Under his leadership, both groups began receiving equal shares (ἰσομοιρεῖν, 2.3.5) in everything—rations, training, weapons, equipment—so that honours and rewards could be distributed based on merit and excellence (aretê). Since all participants now started on equal footing (ἐκ τοῦ ἴσου, 2.3.8), competition (agôn) rewards could be allocated according to individual merit and performance.

Nevertheless, tensions between nobles and commoners persisted.Footnote ¹⁹ The Persian commoner Pheraulas points out that while nobles had enjoyed a pleasant and honourable life, commoners had, until recently, endured a toilsome (ἐπίπονον), dishonoured (ἄτιμον) and extremely difficult (χαλεπώτατος) existence. Yet Pheraulas argues that this very hardship would give commoners an advantage in the competition (2.3.11), which he describes as a test of eagerness rather than technique (ἐν ᾗ προθυμίας μᾶλλον ἢ τέχνης ἔργον ἐστί). He then proceeds to contrast the lifestyles of nobles and commoners:

Pheraulas’ observations highlight the social contrast between nobles and commoners. However, notably, both groups received comparable physical training. Pheraulas emphasizes the nobles’ καρτερία—their endurance of physical hardships, such as hunger (λιμός), thirst (δίψα) and fatigue (πόνος). For nobles, this endurance was developed through the Persian public educational system, which was accessible only to those who had sufficient leisure time. This was not the case for most commoners, who had to work their own lands as self-labourers (autourgoi). Nobles were taught by elder citizens, magistrates and adults (Cyr. 1.2.5). Their activities were primarily outdoors, including hunting (1.2.11), guarding the city and its borders (1.2.12) and even sleeping near public buildings (1.2.9). As this passage demonstrates, they were conditioned to ponos from an early age through practices such as carrying their weapons at all times.

Pheraulas contends, however, that Persian commoners received superior physical training through an even better teacher (διδάσκαλος): necessity (ἀνάγκη) itself. This concept should be understood broadly. Being born into materially poor families, necessity forced them to endure hunger and thirst. It also compelled them to spend most of their time outdoors, working Persia’s rugged terrain with their own hands, thereby exposing their bodies to natural elements—heat, cold, rain, drought and wild animals—and requiring them to rise early. Pheraulas emphasizes that they were compelled (ἠναγκαζόμεθα) to walk and run while carrying heavy loads, whereas Persian nobles merely carried light weapons. This emphasis on walking and running is significant, as it demonstrates how these activities, combined with carrying heavy loads (φορτία), prepare the body to endure other hardships, particularly those of war. This notably parallels the anecdote in Memorabilia 3.13.6 (see T4 above), where Socrates sharply rebukes a fellow citizen for exhaustion from a long journey, even though his slave child alone carried the entire load (φορτίον). Moreover, this practice of alternating between walking and running mirrors Ischomachus’ daily exercises (Oec. 11.15). The Persians’ exposure to the outdoors also reflects Socrates’ own training regimen: he never shied away from outdoor conditions, whether cold or heat, and walked everywhere despite sore feet, thus training his body to endure (καρτερεῖν) constant physical hardships (see T2 above).

Nevertheless, Pheraulas’ portrayal aims to highlight both the remarkable physical fitness of the commoners and their austere—indeed, virtuous—way of life, a characteristic they share with Persian nobles. This explains why Xenophon, when introducing Pheraulas, emphasizes that neither his body nor his soul appeared to be those of a low-born man (καὶ τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὴν ψυχὴν ἀγεννεῖ ἀνδρὶ ἐοικώς, Cyr. 2.3.7). It also explains why, after the conquest of Babylon, ten thousand men from among the Persian autourgoi were selected as guards of the royal palace (7.5.66–8).

After the competition, Cyrus invited the victorious soldiers and companies to dine in his tent. When one of the captains protested his exclusion, he detailed the daily training he imposed on his troops, particularly their marching exercises. Cyrus promptly extended an invitation to him, saying: ‘I will invite you, because you give your lines practice both in coming and in going (ὅτι τὰς τάξεις μελετᾶτε καὶ προσιόντες καὶ ἀπιόντες), by night and by day, and also because you give your bodies exercise by marching about (ἅμα δ’ ὅτι τά τε σώματα περιπατοῦντες ἀσκεῖτε), and improve your minds by instruction’ (Cyr. 2.3.23).

III

The idea of regular exercise, particularly lower body training, as a key aspect of Xenophon’s conception of physical fitness—and, more broadly, his notion of paideia—also extends to the training of animals, as vividly illustrated in On Horsemanship 4.3–4.Footnote ²¹ Xenophon argues that, just as one must care for the horse’s diet and exercise to strengthen its body (ὥσπερ δὲ τοῦ ἵππου σίτου τε καὶ γυμνασίων ἐπιμελητέον ὅπως ἂν τὸ σῶμα ἰσχύῃ), one must also train its feet (oὕτω καὶ τοὺς πόδας ἀσκητέον). He then offers advice on how to strengthen the horse’s hooves even when at rest, recommending that the floor be kept dry, paved with stones and scattered with pebbles to harden the hooves (στερεοῖ τοὺς πόδας … τοὺς πόδας καρτερύνοι) whether the horse is standing or moving. This system is designed to mimic the effects of daily walking on a stony road for a few hours (ἀεὶ μέρος τι τῆς ἡμέρας), a phrase that underscores the idea that exercise should not be confined to framework of ‘official’ training—an approach consistent with what we have observed thus far. Just as Spartan children and Socrates continually train their bodies, horses too are conditioned to exercise even while idle in the stable, which is deliberately structured to strengthen their feet. Let us now examine two additional passages from On Horsemanship to gain a clearer understanding of the relationship between lower body training and the development of a strong and vigorous body:

Xenophon exhibits an almost obsessive concern with the lower body, extending even to foot training as a crucial aspect of horse upbringing. T7 vividly illustrates this concern through an analogy with a house: just as a house with weak foundations is useless (οὐδὲν ὄφελος), a war horse with bad feet (κακόπους) would not only be useless (οὐδὲν … ὄφελος) in combat but would also render all its other qualities futile. The strengthening of the feet and legs is so vital that nearly half of the first chapter of On Horsemanship is dedicated to examining the horse’s lower body (1.1–7). Xenophon follows a structured progression, starting with the feet, moving through the legs and culminating at the head—implicitly reinforcing the idea that the feet and legs form the body’s foundation. He explicitly states that the bones of the legs should be wide, as they serve as the body’s pillars (ταῦτα γάρ ἐστι στήριγγες τοῦ σώματος, 1.5).

In the Spartan Constitution (see T1 above), Xenophon meticulously describes the bodily movements Spartan children must practice while going barefoot (ἀνυπόδητον): climbing heights (ὀρθιάδε ἐκβαίνειν), descending slopes (πρανῆ καταβαίνειν), leaping (πηδῆσαι), jumping (ἀναθορεῖν) and sprinting (δραμεῖν θᾶττον). He employs similar terminology in On Horsemanship 3.7 (see T8) when detailing the physical trials a horse must endure in battle. Accordingly, the groom must ensure that the horse can jump ditches (τάφρους διαπηδᾶν), cross barricades (τειχία ὑπερβαίνειν), leap onto a bank (ἐπ’ ὄχθους ἀνορούειν) and jump down an escarpment (ἀπ’ ὄχθων καθάλλεσθαι); the horse must also be tested by being ridden downhill (πρὸς ἄναντες), uphill (κατὰ πρανοῦς) and in a slanting direction (πλάγια ἐλαύνοντα).Footnote ²⁴ These exercises reveal whether the horse possesses an enduring spirit (τὴν ψυχὴν εἰ καρτερά) and a sound body (τὸ σῶμα εἰ ὑγιές). Although the horse’s movements are more complex than those of the children, the parallel remains relevant. Spartan children train to navigate difficult terrain barefoot because, as soldiers, they will face diverse and challenging conditions, including snow, rough ground and varied battlefields.Footnote ²⁵ Likewise (T8), war horses must be conditioned to execute tactical manoeuvres without injuring their hooves—or, potentially, their riders. Given that Greek horses did not wear horseshoes, that the geography in Greece was rugged, and that the ground was generally hard and dry, the natural quality of the hooves, reinforced by rigorous lower body training, becomes especially significant.Footnote ²⁶

Τhe same principle is applied to the training of hounds:

This text demonstrates that, regardless of the presence of hares in the region, it is beneficial to lead the dogs over rough terrain (τὰ τραχέα) so that they develop strong feet (εὔποδες) and condition their bodies to endure fatigue (τὰ σώματα διαπονοῦσαι). This idea is echoed in the Hipparchicus (8.3), where it is stated that horses with well-hardened feet (τοὺς πόδας ἐκπεπονημένοι) perform better on rough ground (πρὸς τραχέα) compared to those with tender feet, much like a healthy horse differs from a lame one (ὅσονπερ ὑγιεῖς χωλῶν). Cynegeticus 4.10 clearly establishes the causal link between strong feet and a robust body, a principle that applies not only to dogs but also to humans and, even more so, to horses. Therefore Xenophon recommends foot training outside the context of the chase, stressing that hounds must continuously train their lower body to maintain overall strength and good health.

If we return to the Spartan Constitution, Xenophon’s omission of intellectual training—understood here as the teaching of letters (τὰ γράμματα) and music (μουσική)—reflects his belief that education must begin with the body, and more specifically with the legs, which he considers the pillar of the body and a source of health and strength. If the lower body is weak and softened, not only does the entire body suffer, but the continuation of the educational process is also jeopardized. Lower body training is introduced in the first stage of Spartan education precisely to prepare children for the rigours of its subsequent phases. Recall that, in Memorabilia 3.12.5–6, Socrates emphasizes the body’s utility in all human activities (πρὸς πάντα γὰρ ὅσα πράττουσιν ἄνθρωποι χρήσιμον τὸ σῶμά ἐστιν), including the very process of thinking (ἐν τῷ διανοεῖσθαι). He further states (ibid.): ‘And because the body is in a bad condition (διὰ τὴν τοῦ σώματος καχεξίαν), loss of memory, depression, discontent, insanity (καὶ λήθη δὲ καὶ ἀθυμία καὶ δυσκολία καὶ μανία) often assail the mind so violently as to drive whatever knowledge it contains clean out of it (ὥστε καὶ τὰς ἐπιστήμας ἐκβάλλειν).’ Indeed, how could Spartan citizens engage in activities such as hunting and warfare—both demanding exceptional memory, vigilance and mental resilience—if they possessed weak bodies? Thus, the body must always be kept in the best possible condition (cf. ὡς βέλτιστα τὸ σῶμα ἔχειν in Mem. 3.12.5), to ensure the mind and all its faculties, including the ability to learn and retain knowledge, remain sharp.

Moreover, stating that Xenophon disregards some intellectual aspects of education does not imply neglect of its intellectual dimension altogether, provided we accept the concept of bodily intelligence. This includes not only the knowledge of how to walk, run and move effectively within a given space (cf. T1, T2, T8 and T9), but also an understanding of the body’s capacities and limits (cf. T4, T5 and T6). If proper interaction between the body and the natural environment is integral to both human and animal intelligence, it must also be a key component of education. This point is particularly important given that some philosophical perspectives place primary emphasis on the intellect and the mind. However, we must remember that we are fundamentally corporeal beings, with our feet (!) firmly on the ground. Understanding our corporeality, therefore, implies recognizing the necessity of integrating physical exercise with the surrounding environment, rather than confining it to controlled spaces like the palaistra.

To support this interpretation, the fifth chapter of the Cynegeticus is particularly relevant, as Xenophon emphasizes the complexity of the hunter’s relationship with the surrounding space and the necessity of understanding all its facets. For instance, the hunter must learn to recognize the times of day when the hare’s scent is strongest (5.1), distinguish the tracks of the game on the ground (5.2) and analyse the influence of the sun, rain and winds on the tracks and scent of the hare (5.3–7). More broadly, the hunter must learn all the habits (5.8–17) and physical traits (5.24–30) of the game he intends to hunt, in this case, the hare. The hunter must also train his eyes to discern the colours of nature to accurately spot the animal in various types of terrain (5.18). Additionally, Cynegeticus 8 is entirely devoted to hunting hares in snowy conditions, where Xenophon provides detailed descriptions of the terrain and methods for overcoming the challenges of hunting during this season. These passages underscore the importance Xenophon places on a deep knowledge of the territory and the necessity of adapting to variations in terrain, light and temperature. It is almost as though Xenophon suggests that the hunter, by honing his own predator instincts and senses, must become a beast himself. This helps understand why he states that hunting is the best training for war (Cyr. 1.2.10–11; Cyn. 12.1). Similarly, chapters four and five of the Hipparchicus contain extensive advice on positioning foot-soldiers (πέζοι) and cavalry on the field to deceive the enemy, particularly by integrating these two types of troops (5.1–2; 13). A skilled commander must recognize terrains where cavalry holds an advantage over infantry (5.1). To execute these stratagems effectively, he must possess thorough knowledge of geography and the battlefield terrain (Eq. mag. 4.6). In essence, the competent commander must spend considerable time outdoors.

Common thread among most of the texts cited above is the emphasis on the continuous development of strength, endurance, health and bodily vigour through exercise in the natural environment.Footnote ²⁸ In sharp contrast to other Greek cities, where children are isolated from nature in the confined and artificial space of the (wrestling-)school, Spartans educate their citizens outdoors, fostering close interaction with nature and the hardships it imposes on the body.Footnote ²⁹ The symbolic image of this type of paideia is walking barefoot, with the skin touching the dirt. Xenophon believes that individuals must be educated in and by the natural environment because, in a context of war, citizen-soldiers will face not only human military forces, but also the forces of nature itself, a principle also valid for war horses. This perspective explains why Xenophon despises many indoor activities, like the infamous banausikai technai (Oec. 4.1–3), and praises outdoor activities such as hunting, horseback riding, farming (5.1–12) and, naturally, warfare.

Furthermore, two significant concepts in Xenophon’s philosophy emerge prominently from the texts analysed: ponos (toil) and karteria (endurance to physical pain).Footnote ³⁰ Let us explore the parallels with the training of horsemen and hunters, who must also condition their bodies to withstand the hardships imposed both by the environment and the physical demands of their activities.

In the eighth chapter of the Hipparchicus, Xenophon emphasizes that the first step to achieving superiority over the enemy is to ensure that both riders and horses are thoroughly trained to endure the toils of a campaign (ὥστε δύνασθαι στρατιωτικοὺς πόνους ὑποφέρειν, 8.2). This rigorous training includes executing tactical manoeuvres across diverse terrains—jumping ditches, leaping walls, springing up banks and descending from heights (8.3). Such exercises are designed not only to maintain the horse’s health and strengthen its feet but also, as On Horsemanship 7.7 explains, to condition the rider to keep his upper body as relaxed as possible, thereby increasing his ability to endure fatigue (οὕτω γὰρ ἂν πονεῖν τε ἔτι μᾶλλον δύναιτο).Footnote ³¹ This regimen parallels the training of Spartan children, who toughen their feet and bodies through running, jumping, climbing and navigating uneven terrain. Xenophon further underscores the efficacy of such training by comparing well-prepared cavalry troops to pirates: even when outnumbered, their habitual endurance and ability to withstand toil (διὰ τὸ πονεῖν ἠσκηκέναι) give them an advantage. In Hipparchicus 4, amid numerous invaluable pieces of advice on how to conduct marches (ἐν … ταῖς πορείαις), Xenophon emphasizes the importance of foresight (προνοεῖν) in relieving the horses’ backs (ἀναπαύῃ μὲν τῶν ἵππων τὰς ἕδρας) and allowing cavalrymen to rest by walking (ἀναπαύῃ δὲ τοὺς ἱππέας τῷ βαδίζειν). He advises alternating between riding and walking on foot in proper measure (μέτριον μὲν ὀχοῦντα, μέτριον δὲ πεζοποροῦντα) to prevent excessive fatigue (ὑπερπονοῦντας, 4.1) for both horses and riders. Both marching and riding can be highly strenuous for man and beast alike, making lower body training essential for building endurance in both scenarios. The ability to march, ride and fight as both infantry and cavalry is a distinct prerogative of human beings, as Cyrus emphasizes (Cyr. 4.3.13–14). Chrysantas further argues that horsemen are even superior to centaurs, as they possess the same speed and strength (τάχος ἔχειν καὶ ἰσχύν) but can dismount at will and live as regular men. Moreover, horsemen benefit from additional pairs of legs, eyes and ears, enhancing their ability to gather intelligence (τεκμαροῦμαι) during military expeditions. Thus, they embody the qualities of both humans and horses without being permanently fused to a horse’s body (4.3.17–21).Footnote ³²

Cyngeticus 12 is dedicated to an eloquent defence of hunting, highlighting its benefits for physical health (ὑγίειαν … τοῖς σώμασι) and its efficacy as preparation for warfare (τὰ δὲ πρὸς τὸν πόλεμον μάλιστα παιδεύει, 12.1). Xenophon argues that hunting not only fosters good health but is also the best school of war, especially because it instils the habit of enduring toil.Footnote ³³ First, Xenophon notes that hunters, accustomed to carrying their weapons over rough terrain, will not falter under similar conditions when marching (12.2). Then, he states that hunters will not disgorge (οὐκ ἀπεροῦσιν) while traversing rough roads (ὅταν ἔχοντες πορεύωνται ὁδοὺς χαλεπάς). This assertion is particularly notable given that nausea and vomiting are common symptoms of extreme physical exhaustion. During intense physical activity, blood is redirected from the stomach and intestines to the working muscles, which can slow digestion and cause discomfort. Additionally, exercise-induced hyponatraemia—an electrolyte imbalance resulting from significant sodium loss through sweating, often exacerbated by excessive intake of low-sodium fluids—can also lead to nausea and vomiting.Footnote ³⁴ By highlighting the hunters’ resilience to such symptoms, Xenophon emphasizes their exceptional endurance and physical conditioning. This resilience is proof of their preparation for the toils of warfare, reinforcing the notion that hunting not only builds physical strength but also fortifies one’s ability to withstand various forms of hardship.

Xenophon stresses that hunters will be capable of bearing hardships (ἀνέξονται γὰρ τοὺς πόνους) due to their experience in carrying weapons while pursuing wild game. This recalls the practices of Socrates and Spartan children, who walk barefoot over all sorts of terrains, as well as the training of hounds and horses on rugged ground (τὰ τραχέα). He also observes (Cyn. 12.3) that hunters will be able to sleep on hard surfaces (εὐνάζεσθαί τε σκληρῶς δυνατοὶ ἔσονται) and remain vigilant when necessary, presumably overnight, which are also remarkable feats of endurance. The good hunter and the good dog share certain physical qualities. The hunter must be agile and robust in appearance, and resolute in spirit, so that he endures fatigue and enjoys his work (τὸ δὲ εἶδος ἐλαφρόν, ἰσχυρόν, ψυχὴν δὲ ἱκανόν, ἵνα τῶν πόνων τούτοις κρατῶν χαίρῃ τῷ ἔργῳ, 2.3). As for the dogs, after carefully describing their physical traits (4.1), Xenophon summarizes their essential attributes, highlighting the following (4.2): they will be solid in appearance, agile, well-proportioned and swift (ἰσχυραὶ τὰ εἴδη, ἐλαφραί, σύμμετροι, ποδώκεις). He further emphasizes that dogs will be courageous (εὔψυχοι μὲν οὖν ἔσονται) if they do not abandon their prey due to extreme heat; they will have good feet (εὔποδες) if, in the same season, they do not break their legs while running on the mountains (4.6). This passage should be compared with Cynegeticus 3.3, where it is stated that those with poor feet (αἱ δὲ ἄποδες), even if they possess courage, cannot endure toil (οὐδ’ ἂν ὦσιν εὔψυχοι τοὺς πόνους δύνανται ἀνέχεσθαι), but instead abandon the chase due to the pain in their feet (ἀλλ’ ἀπαγορεύουσι διὰ τὸ ἄλγος τῶν ποδῶν).Footnote ³⁵

Lastly, Xenophon asserts that, if hunters are assigned to the front ranks, they will steadfastly hold their positions in battle, because they can endure (διὰ τὸ καρτερεῖν δύνασθαι), which is essential in hoplitic warfare. In other words, physical resistance goes hand in hand with mental fortitude—being accustomed to pain enhances one’s ability to endure it.Footnote ³⁶ Through these observations, Xenophon underscores the importance of ponos and karteria in shaping both the body and the character of hunters and warriors alike.Footnote ³⁷ As Xenophon states: ‘Men who are always sound in body and mind stand on the threshold of success’ (ἀεὶ γὰρ ἔστι τοῖς τὰ σώματα καὶ τὰς ψυχὰς εὖ ἔχουσιν ἐγγὺς εἶναι τοῦ εὐτυχῆσαι).Footnote ³⁸ This explains why Xenophon considers hunting a cornerstone of the educational systems in both Sparta and Persia.Footnote ³⁹

IV

Xenophon’s emphasis on lower body training does not imply that he neglects the upper body. Although rare, there are revealing passages where he highlights the importance of a well-proportioned body. The activity that fosters this balance is dance. In the Symposium, the performance of a slave boy prompts Socrates to praise dancing:

The Symposium overall, and this passage specifically, is characterized by the interplay between playfulness and seriousness (see Symp. 1.1). What amuses the guests is not a joke itself, but rather the unexpected earnestness with which Socrates asks the Syracusan impresario to teach him dance moves. The more serious Socrates appears, the more the guests laugh. Their reaction echoes Memorabilia 3.5.15, where the young Pericles asks rhetorically when the Athenians will adopt the Spartan system of physical training (cf. σωμασκήσουσιν), ‘seeing that they not only neglect to make themselves fit, but mock those who take the trouble to do so (ἀλλὰ καὶ τῶν ἐπιμελομένων καταγελῶσι)’. The Athenians’ attitude toward physical training contrasts sharply with Socrates, who ‘never neglected the body, and reproved such neglect in others’ (τοῦ σώματος αὐτός τε οὐκ ἠμέλει τούς τʼ ἀμελοῦντας οὐκ ἐπῄνει, Mem. 1.2.4). This explains why Memorabilia 3.12–13 contains several anecdotes in which Socrates criticizes his fellow citizens’ neglect and laziness, urging them to improve their physical fitness (see T4 and T5 above).

For the purposes of this study, whether the historical Socrates or Xenophon’s Socrates actually danced is irrelevant. What matters is Socrates’ genuine seriousness in praising dance’s usefulness, as evidenced by the Syracusan’s question: ‘What will you do with these dance moves?’ (τί οὖν χρήσῃ αὐτοῖς). Socrates’ seriousness signals to readers that, despite the playful atmosphere, he is conveying an important lesson to the other guests. We should not dismiss Socrates’ views on dance as lacking seriousness (σπουδή) merely because the passage is humorous and light-hearted. Xenophon consistently portrays Socrates as an enthusiastic advocate of physical fitness. In Symposium 2.16–17, he presents Socrates as genuinely passionate about dancing and, more broadly, about any physical activity (εἰ τοιούτων γυμνασίων ἐπιθυμῶ) that (i) promotes health, (ii) trains the entire body simultaneously and (iii) develops bodily symmetry (cf. παντὶ διαπονῶν τῷ σώματι πᾶν ἰσόρροπον ποιεῖν). Each of these aspects carries philosophical and ethical significance.Footnote ⁴¹ As Socrates notes, dance enhances one’s enjoyment of eating and sleeping (2.17);Footnote ⁴² it is also a highly adaptable and self-sufficient activity that can be practiced alone, both outdoors in summer and indoors in winter. Moreover, it requires no special equipment—only enough space to move freely (2.18).

In Symposium 2.16–20, dance is discussed not for its spiritual aspects—such as its potential to induce ecstatic experiences—but rather for its effectiveness in improving overall physical condition. As Socrates observes while the slave boy danced, not a single part of his body remained idle (ἀργόν); instead, all parts were equally engaged, making dance an exercise that renders the body more supple (εὐφορώτερον). The adjective εὔφορος, which also means ‘easy to bear’, ‘active’, ‘vigorous’ and ‘able to endure’, belongs to the vocabulary of physical fitness that has been emphasized throughout. The comparison with wrestlers and long-distance runners in 2.17 further demonstrates that dance is an excellent form of physical exercise, particularly in promoting bodily symmetry—not only in terms of size and weight but also of strength.Footnote ⁴³ By engaging all muscle groups, dance ensures balanced strength development in both the upper and lower body.

When Charmides catches sight of Socrates dancing (2.19), he becomes inspired to exercise. However, having never learned to dance, he practices shadow-boxing (ἐχειρονόμουν), which, when done with proper knowledge (cf. ἠπιστάμην), presumably also trains the lower body. Philippus observes that Charmides’ legs appear to match his shoulders evenly in strength (καὶ γὰρ οὖν οὕτω τὰ σκέλη τοῖς ὤμοις φαίνει ἰσοφόρα ἔχειν, 2.20). Whether Charmides is being playful or Philippus ironic is beside the point; what matters is the recognition that certain physical activities engage the entire body—precisely why Socrates praises dance. Similarly, farming also strengthens both the upper and lower body, as Socrates notes that it improves one’s ability to run, throw and leap.Footnote ⁴⁴

This emphasis on both the upper and lower body is also reflected in a passage from the Constitution of the Lacedaemonians:

Although Xenophon does not specify the Spartans’ exercise types, their gymnasium activities equally (ὁμοίως) trained the legs, arms and neck, paralleling the slave boy’s dance performance in Symposium 2.14–15, which engaged the same body parts. While the importance of training legs and arms is self-evident, Xenophon’s emphasis on the neck is less obvious. One possible explanation is that one of the shield straps rested on the neck, allowing the shield to be held high with better support and reducing strain on the soldier’s arm. The Spartans’ bodies are healthier and more useful (χρησιμωτέρους) not only because they train both lower and upper body but also, as Xenophon notes in the previous paragraph (5.8), because they maintain proportion between food intake and physical activity. This aligns with other passages where Xenophon praises measured nutrition followed by moderate physical activity (Mem. 1.2.4, Oec. 4.24, 10.11, 11.12, Cyr. 1.2.12), as well as the pleasure derived from this balance, as Socrates emphasizes in Symposium 2.17 (see also Ages. 9.3).

V

Xenophon prioritizes physical over intellectual education, at least in the Spartan Constitution, viewing rigorous physical and continuous military training as cornerstones of Sparta’s military power. This emphasis on constant exercise is reflected in the lifestyles of Socrates, Ischomachus and his wife, Persian nobles and commoners, as well as in the training regimens for horses and hounds. Moreover, he advocates regular physical training for all private individuals, as a strong and healthy body is useful for any activity, particularly in wartime, as demonstrated in the anecdotes from Mem. 3.12–13. Xenophon promotes the integration of physical training into daily routines and encourages outdoor activities, believing that regular contact with nature develops physical endurance (karteria). More broadly, Xenophon is deeply concerned with the effects—both beneficial and harmful—of physical condition on the soul,Footnote ⁴⁶ a topic that warrants further exploration in a separate study. He views physical fitness not as an isolated pursuit but as an integral component of character development, practical capability, military and civic excellence.

Xenophon is the only Socratic who provides a philosophical explanation for Socrates’ shoelessness, integrating it into the broader framework of his ethics and ideas on (physical) education. Aristophanes refers to ‘barefoot fellows’ (τοὺς ἀνυποδήτους) in his comic portrayal of the ‘miserable Socrates’ (ὁ κακοδαίμων Σωκράτης, Nub. 103–4) and presents it as a kind of Socratic ideal, marked by his practice of enduring hardships barefoot (κἀνυπόδητος κακὰ πόλλ’ ἀνέχει), in contrast to Prodicus’ wisdom and intelligence (σοφίας καὶ γνώμης, 361–4). While the contrast between Socrates’ physical attributes and Prodicus’ intellectual qualities is intriguing, Aristophanes never explores the possible motivations behind Socrates’ austerity. Among Socrates’ remarkable feats (θαυμαστά) as a soldier, Plato notes his walking barefoot on snow, associating it with the quality of karteria (Symp. 220b), but neither elaborates on it nor makes it central to his Socrates’ ethics and way of life. These references probably indicate that the motif became a literary topos, perhaps because it was an extraordinary behaviour, especially among Athenian intellectuals. For Xenophon, walking barefoot, wearing simple garments and physical training beyond the confines of the palaistra and the polis represent excellent methods for practicing an austere and virtuous way of life. This ‘return to nature’ is also considered the best way to improve one’s physical condition, an essential component of a healthy and fulfilled life. Although Xenophon’s emphasis on lower body training, particularly the feet, appears to be unique to him, it would none the less be interesting to explore in a future study whether his and Plato’s views on physical fitness more broadly align. Their interest in physical training, particularly in works such as the Memorabilia, the Cyropaedia, the Republic and the Laws, suggests a shared and probably Socratic theme: the connection between physical training and the formation and development of the polis.

Xenophon’s emphasis on lower body training reflects his understanding of the feet and legs as the body’s foundation. Thus, strengthening the lower body is crucial for ensuring overall vigour and health. For horses and hounds, we have seen that their feet must undergo regular testing through various training methods. For humans, Xenophon advocates for constant activity, especially walking, marching and running. Throughout the diverse texts we have examined, the common thread is the emphasis on concepts such as endurance (karteria), toil (ponos), good disposition (euexia) and health (hygieia), combined with a vocabulary that emphasizes force, vigour, practice and training. Xenophon recommends similar activities for both animals and humans to strengthen the feet in particular and the lower body in general—an approach especially useful in military contexts, where marching is a fundamental aspect of the soldier’s life. Although the Anabasis and Hellenica lack a more theoretical perspective on lower body training, they offer abundant and concrete examples of marches as the quintessential form of physical toil, also warranting a separate study.Footnote ⁴⁷ While we have examined passages where Xenophon promotes training both upper and lower body—with dance being perhaps the ideal exercise for promoting bodily symmetry—he curiously never advocates training the upper body alone, possibly suggesting its ineffectiveness compared to lower body or whole-body training. Throughout his works, Xenophon demonstrates not only keen observational skills and practical experience but also a coherent conception of physical fitness and education.