¹ Linz, Juan and Stepan, Alfred, Problems ofDemocratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-communist Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996Google Scholar).

² On this relationship see Solomon, Peter H. Jr., ”Courts in Russia: Independence, Power, and Accountability,” in Sajo, Andras, ed., Judicial Integrity (Leiden and Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 2004Google Scholar).

³ See Russell, Peter H., ”Toward a General Theory of Judicial Independence,” in Russell, Peter H. and O'Brien, David, eds., JudicialIndependence in the Age of Democracy: Critical Perspectives from around the World (Charlottesville, Va., and London: University Press of Virginia, 2001Google Scholar); and Valente v. the Queen 2 S.C.R. (Canada, 1985), 673.

⁴ Shapiro, Martin, Courts: A Comparative and Political Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 32–35Google Scholar.

⁵ For the debate on one of the strongestjudicial bureaucracies in the world, that ofJapan, see Upham, Frank, ”Political Lackeys or Faithful Public Servants? Two Views of the Japanese Judiciary,” Law and SocialInquiry 30 (2005Google Scholar).

⁶ Streb, Mathew J., ed., Runningfor Judge: The Rising Political, Financial, and Legal Stakes of Judicial Elections (New York and London: New York University Press, 2007Google Scholar); and Schotland, Roy A., ”New Challenges to States' Judicial Selection,” Georgetown Law Journal 95 (2007Google Scholar).

⁷ Solomon, Peter H. Jr., Soviet Criminal Justice under Stalin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996Google Scholar); and idem and Foglesong, Todd, Courts and Transition in Russia: The Challenge of Judicial Reform (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2000Google Scholar), chap. 1.

⁸ Toharia, Jose, ”Judicial Independence in an Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Contemporary Spain,” Law and Society Review 9 (Spring 1975CrossRefGoogle Scholar). A version of the Spanish solution was found in the early years of Nazi Germany, where politically important matters were put in special tribunals of one sort or another and the regular courts were allowed to continue normal practice for a while in nonpolitical civil cases. The removal of Jews from the judiciary in Germany and occasional directives on types of cases made the situation of judges on ordinary courts less than normal, but there were still grounds for the contention that in certain spheres Germany still had a rechtsstaat. Fraenkel, Ernst, The Dual State:A Contribution to the Theory of Dictatorship, trans. Edward Shils in collaboration with Edith Lowenstein and Klaus Knoor (New York:Octagon Books, 1941Google Scholar). See also Muller, Ingo, Hitler's Justice: The Courts of the Third Reich (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991Google Scholar).

⁹ Gordon Silverstein, ”Singapore: The Exception that Proves Rules Matter,” in Tom Ginsburg and Tamir Moustafa, eds., Rule by Law: The Politics of Courts in Authoritarian Regimes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).

¹⁰ See Peter H. Solomon, Jr., ”Judicial Power in Authoritarian Regimes: The Case of Russia,” in Ginsburg and Moustafa (fn. 9); and idem, ”Threats of Judicial Counterreform in Putin's Russia,” revised and enlarged version, in Hendley, Kathryn, ed., Remaking the Role of Law: Commercial Law in Russia and the CIS (Huntington, N.Y.:Juris, 2007Google Scholar).

¹¹ There are other ways of classifying the situations of courts in authoritarian states. One could, along with Ginsburg and Moustafa, draw a two-by-two table, distinguishing between high and low levels of independence and power on each axis and placing countries in the boxes. Most of the countries that fall into the third model would land between the boxes (as their degrees of power and sometimes independence were neither high nor low). A three-by-three version, with high, medium, and low positions on each variable would still fail to capture the effects of informal practices or institutions. Tom Ginsburg and Tamir Moustafa, ”Introduction: The Functions of Courts in Authoritarian Politics,” in Ginsburg and Moustafa (fn. 9).

¹² Hirschl, Ran, Towards Juristocracy: The Origins and Consequences of the New Constitutionalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004Google Scholar); Tom Ginsburg, , Judicial Review in New Democracies: Constitutional Courts in Asia Cases (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Finkel, Jodi, ”Judicial Reform as Insurance Policy: Mexico in the 1990s,” Latin American Politics and Society 47 (Spring 2005CrossRefGoogle Scholar); idem, ”Judicial Reform in Argentina in the 1990s: How Electoral Incentives Shape Institutional Change,” Latin American Research Review 39 (October 2004Google Scholar); and Ramseyer, J. Mark, ”The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach,” Journal of Legal Studies 23 (June 1994Google Scholar).

¹³ Chavez, Rebecca Bill, ”The Construction of Rule of Law in Argentina: A Tale of Two Provinces,” Comparative Politics 35 (July 2003CrossRefGoogle Scholar); and idem, The Rule of Law in Nascent Democracies:Judicial Politics in Argentina (Palo Alto:Stanford University Press, 2004Google Scholar).

¹⁴ Unger, Roberto, Law in Modern Society (New York: The Free Press, 1976Google Scholar).

¹⁵ Moustafa, Tamir, ”A Judicialization of Authoritarian Politics?” (Paper presented at the APSA, Washington, D.C., September 1–4, 2005Google Scholar); and Grzymala-Busse, Anna, ”Political Competition and the Politicization of the State in East Central Europe,” Comparative Political Studies 36 (December 2003Google Scholar).

¹⁶ Ramseyer (fn. 12); Ginsburg (fn. 12); Finkel (fn. 12); and Linz and Stepan (fn. 1).

¹⁷ See Popova, Maria, ”Judicial Independence and Political Corruption: Electoral and Defamation Disputes in Russia and Ukraine” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2006Google Scholar).

¹⁸ Solomon (fn. 7), chap. 7. See also Sharlet, Robert and Beirne, Piers, ”In Search of Vyshinsky: The Paradox of Law and Terror,” InternationalJournal of the Sociology of Lam 12 (May 1984Google Scholar).

¹⁹ Solomon (fn. 7), chap. 4, 6, and 11.

²⁰ Osiel, Mark J., ”Dialogue with Dictators: Judicial Resistance in Argentina and Brazil,” Law and SocialInquiry 20 (Spring 1995Google Scholar).

²¹ On comparative rates of acquittal see Solomon, Peter H. Jr., ”The Case of the Vanishing Acquittal: Informal Norms and the Practice of Soviet Criminal Justice,” Soviet Studies 39 (October 1987CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

²² Osiel (fn. 20).

²³ Kirchheimer, Otto, Political Justice: The Use of Legal Procedure for Political Ends (Princeton: Princ eton University Press, 1961Google Scholar).

¹ Author interviews with former Soviet jurists in emigration, 1985–86.

²⁵ Epp, Charles, The Rights Revolution: Lawyers, Activists, and Supreme Courts in Comparative Perspective (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998Google Scholar).

²⁶ Hirschl, Ran, ”Constitutional Courts vs. Religious Fundamentalism: Three Middle Eastern Tales,” Texas Law Review 82 (June 2004Google Scholar). Note that Hirschl has argued that the scc's role in fighting religious fundamentalism was the main reason why the regime tolerated its meddling in narrowly political matters (Moustafa mentions but does not give much weight to this, p. 109) and even a reason for the scc's earlier empowerment, a point not supported by Moustafa's research. According to Hirschl, the Constitutional Court of Turkey has also become ”a bastion of secularism in an otherwise increasingly theocratic policy” (personal communication).

²⁷ Not surprisingly, Moustafa grounds his argument in new institutionalist theory as developed by Douglas North and Barry Weingast (see pp. 22–24). More important is his finding that Egyptian politicians seem to have embraced this logic in making policy choices. Whether the premises of in-stitutionalist literature on property rights are self-evident or conveyed to domestic authorities by representatives of international organizations or local economic advisors, this line of thought sometimes has practical impact.

²⁸ Tom Ginsburg, ”Administrative Law and the Judicial Control of Agents in Authoritarian Regimes,” in Ginsburg and Moustafa (fn. 9).

²⁹ Solomon, Peter H. Jr., ”Judicial Power in Russia: Through the Prism of Administrative Justice,” Law and Society Review 38 (September 2004CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

³⁰ Helmke, Gretchen, Courts under Constraints: Judges, Generals, and Presidents in Argentina (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004Google Scholar); and idem, ”Checks and Balances by Other Means: Strategic Defection and Argentina's Supreme Court in the 1990s,” Comparative Politics 35 (January 2003Google Scholar).

³¹ Ramseyer (fn. 12).

³² The coup d'etat launched by President Musharraf of Pakistan against his country's Supreme Court in November 2007 stands as an exception. When the Court threatened to declare Musharraf's rule illegitimate, he chose to declare a state of emergency and fire all members of the Court rather than accept its judgment. In so doing, however, the president acted like an authoritarian rather than a democratic leader.

³³ Vanberg, Georg, The Politics ofConstitutionalReview in Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005Google Scholar).

³⁴ Heidi Ly Beirich, ”The Role of the Constitutional Tribunal in Spanish Politics (1980–1995)” (Ph.D. diss., Purdue University, 1998); Schwartz, Herman, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2000Google Scholar); Scheppele, Kim Lane, ”The New Hungarian Constitutional Court,” East European Constitutional Review 8 (Fall 1999), 81–87Google Scholar; Solyom, Laszlo and Brunner, Georg, eds., ConstitutionalJudiciary in a New Democracy: The Hungarian Constitutional Court (Ann Arbor, Mich.:University of Michigan Press, 2000CrossRefGoogle Scholar); and Alexei Trochev, ”Judicial Pluralism and the Rule of Law: Lessons from Central and Eastern Europe” (Paper presented at ”Judicial Reforms in the CEE Countries,” Universite Libre de Bruxelles, November 17, 2006).

³⁵ Alexei Trochev, The Role of the Constitutional Court in Russian Politics, 1990–2006 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming). See also his ”Less Democracy, More Courts: The Puzzle ofJudicial Review in Russia,” Law and Society Review 38 (September 2004Google Scholar).

³⁶ For a strong, empirically based defense of a policy-oriented court with politically motivated justices in a common law democracy such as the United States, see Peretti, Terri Jennings, In Defense of a Political Court (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999Google Scholar).

³⁷ Shapiro (fn. 4); McCloskey, Robert G., The American Supreme Court (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1960Google Scholar); Sweet, Alec Stone, Governing withJudges: Constitutional Politics in Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Russell, Peter H. and O'Brien, David M., Judicial Independence in the Age of Democracy (Charlottesville, Va., and London: University Press of Virginia, 2001Google Scholar); Howe, Paul and Russell, Peter, eds., Judicial Power and Canadian Democracy (Montreal: McGill Queen's Press, 2001Google Scholar); Guarnieri, Carlo and Pederzoli, Patricia, The Power ofJudges: A Comparative Study of Courts and Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002CrossRefGoogle Scholar); and Feeley, Malcolm and Rubin, Edward L., Judicial Policy Making and the Modern State: How the Courts Reformed America's Prisons (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998Google Scholar).

³⁸ See, for example, Jacob, Herbert, Felony justice: An Organizational Analysis of Criminal Courts (Boston: Little Brown, 1977Google Scholar); and Reiss, Alfred J., The Police and the Public (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971Google Scholar). See also McBarnet, Doreen J., Crime, Compliance, and Control (Aldershot, U.K., and Burlington, Vt: Ashgate/Dartmouth, 2004Google Scholar).

³⁹ On the analysis of informal institutions and practices, see Helmke, Gretchen and Le-vitsky, Steven, ”Informal Institutions and Comparative Politics: A Research Agenda,” Perspectives on Politics, 2 (December 2004CrossRefGoogle Scholar); and Ledeneva, Alena, How Russia Really Works: The Informal Practices that Shaped Post-Soviet Politics and Business (Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 2006Google Scholar), especially chap. 1.

⁴⁰ Solomon, Peter H. Jr., ”Informal Practices in Russian Justice: Probing the Limits of Post-Soviet Reform,” in Feldbrugge, Ferdinand, ed., Russia, Europe, and the Rule ofLaw (Leiden and Boston: Mar-tinus Nijhoff, 2007), 79–92Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Solomon, Peter H. Jr., ”Law in Public Administration: How Russia Differs,” Journalof Communist Studies and Transition Politics 24 (March 2008Google Scholar); and idem, ”The Reform of Policing in the Russian Federation,” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 38 (2005Google Scholar).

⁴² Grzymah-Busse, Anna, ”Informal Institutions and the Post-Communist State,” (Manuscript, 2004Google Scholar).

⁴³ Peerenboom, Randall, China's Long March towardRule ofLaw (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

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