2.1 The Emergence of Philosophical Practice

Philosophical practice emerges as a means to address these challenges, offering a path toward self-actualization by helping individuals explore fundamental questions about existence, meaning, and values. By engaging in philosophical inquiry, people can clarify their beliefs, overcome confusion, and achieve a deeper understanding of themselves and the world — thus progressing toward the self-actualization that Maslow describes. Through philosophical practice, individuals can attain inner peace and fulfilment by aligning their actions with their authentic selves.

As a representative of the applied turn in contemporary Western philosophy, philosophical counselling and therapy, along with various approaches that integrate philosophy into daily life, are collectively known as “philosophical practice.” Philosophical practice involves bringing philosophy into people’s everyday lives, typically facilitated by a trained philosophical practitioner who employs philosophical methods — such as utilizing philosophical theories and techniques — to examine individuals’ beliefs and improve their thinking patterns through insights into their own experiences. This process helps participants learn to think like philosophers, aiding them in solving practical problems or existential issues they encounter in daily life. Ultimately, philosophical practice leads to greater self-understanding, personal growth, and inner peace.

Regarding the emergence of contemporary philosophical practice, its beginning depends critically on how one defines the term. When understood narrowly as individual consultations intended as alternatives to traditional psychotherapy, philosophical practice is often traced back to its inception in late-20^th-century Europe (Achenbach et al., Reference Achenbach, Fischer, Macho, Marquard and Martens1984). In this context, the methods emphasize individual dialogue using classical philosophical techniques to address personal and existential issues in a private practice outside academia. Although some scholars have attributed the origins of U.S. philosophical practice to claims that Peter Grimes was an early pioneer in this field, the evidence is ambiguous. Grimes is primarily known for his academic work — teaching Socratic dialogue within university settings and conducting group sessions (for example, with persons contending with addiction) — yet there is scant evidence supporting the existence of a sustained practice beyond these institutional boundaries (Grimes & Uliana, Reference Grimes and Uliana1998). Moreover, the integration of philosophical inquiry into psychotherapeutic contexts can be seen as one of the precedents from which contemporary philosophical consultations later evolved (Cohen, Reference Cohen2003a; Rogers, Reference Rogers1951).

Broadening the scope to include Socratic group dialogue shifts the historical perspective further back into the early 20^th century. Pioneers such as Leonard Nelson and Gustav Heckmann played a seminal role in developing these practices in Germany, where they conducted sessions with workers and other non-academic groups. Their work not only democratized philosophical dialogue but also laid the foundational techniques for engaging diverse publics outside formal academic settings (Heckmann, Reference Heckmann1981; Nelson, Reference Nelson1949). This early tradition underscores the possibility of philosophical practice as a public, socially engaged activity rather than one confined to the walls of academia.

If one adopts a more expansive understanding of philosophical practice — as an “art of living” that emphasizes philosophy as a way of life — the origins become even more ancient and transcultural (Ding et al., Reference Ding, Harteloh, Pan and Yu2024b). In this broad sense, philosophy has long served as both a guide for daily living and a source of ethical and therapeutic counsel. Pierre Hadot (Reference Hadot1995) emphasizes that philosophy is not merely an intellectual enterprise but a way of life that involves continuous self-examination and active engagement with the world, a perspective evident in the classical dialogues of Socrates and in the practices of the Stoics, such as Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, who cultivated tranquility and resilience through their way of life. Similarly, from ancient Greece, Rome, India, to China, philosophers engaged in consultative and therapeutic dialogue. In China, for example, Confucius not only debated ethical and personal conduct with his disciples and rulers but also promoted social harmony and virtue (Ames & Rosemont, Reference Ames and Rosemont1998; Zhang, Reference Zhang1999). Although Western philosophy has often been confined to theoretical exploration and rigorous conceptual analysis since the time of Plato, the universal notion of philosophy as an integrative art of life — transcending cultural and temporal boundaries — remains a timeless and influential paradigm.

While the “armchair philosophy” has built a vast intellectual kingdom through systematic reasoning and abstract speculation, its disconnection from the general public and daily life has led to dissatisfaction among many. Philosophical practice emerged from this discontent with traditional academic philosophy, proposing that philosophy should move toward everyday life and address practical concerns. As Hadot notes, the emergence of universities also contributed to the current mode of philosophy. Initially, philosophy was a public phenomenon, with Socrates engaging people in the marketplace. Then, schools emerged, such as Plato’s Academy and the Stoic school, and eventually philosophy became enclosed within universities (e.g., the University of Bologna, established in 1088, received its formal charter (Authentica Habita) from Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1158), becoming a branch of science. Now, there is a rediscovery of philosophy as a public phenomenon.

2.2 Different Modes of Philosophical Practice

According to their objectives and methods, philosophical practice is mainly divided into three categories: individual counselling or consultations, group facilitation (including philosophy with children in schools), and organizational consulting. It is important to distinguish between philosophical practice and philosophical consultations. “Philosophical practice” refers to philosophy as a way of life, encompassing a broad approach to integrating philosophy into everyday living. “Philosophical consultations” are specific activities within this practice, involving direct engagement with clients to address personal or organizational issues. Similarly, there is a distinction between philosophical counselling and philosophical consultations. The term “counselling” carries psychotherapeutic connotations and is used within philosophical practice; however, “consultation” may be preferred to emphasize the philosophical nature of the engagement without the implication of psychotherapy. Individual consultations, group dialogue, and organizational consulting all support philosophy as a way of life.

2.2.3 Organizational Consulting

Any organization — whether a government, school, hospital, or company — will face various ethical and moral dilemmas. Organizational consulting refers to the process whereby philosophical practitioners use a series of philosophical techniques to enhance or improve the organization’s ethical sensibilities and spiritual ethos (Hațegan, Reference Hațegan2019a). Dutch economic philosopher Henk van Luijk argues that wherever there is business, there are moral crises. An ethical organization can provide its employees with a more positive work environment and foster more harmonious collegial relationships, thereby enhancing relationships between employees and customers. Therefore, such organizational consulting is beneficial to everyone and ultimately achieves the goal of maximizing organizational interests (van Luijk, Reference van Luijk1993). Philosophical practitioners can be part of the organization or act as external consultants facilitating in-company group discussions such as moral deliberations or philosophical walks.

In Holland, the Nelsonian Socratic Method and the subsequent Neo-Socratic dialogue are fundamental to business philosophy. They are applied in areas such as policy-making and business identity, the promotion of human well-being within companies (often referred to as “human resources”), quality management, and environmental ethics. By engaging in reflective, critical dialogue, practitioners explore the deeper values and assumptions underlying organizational practices, which helps businesses address ethical dilemmas, enhance decision-making, and foster a more sustainable and human-centric approach to corporate governance.

Philosophical practitioners can also integrate individual counselling and group facilitation techniques to solve specific organizational and interpersonal problems. Marinoff, drawing on his years of experience in philosophical practice, developed the famous “PEACE” process model (see Figure 1), enabling this model of philosophical practice — with organizations and individuals as clients — to spread successfully from North America to Europe and around the world. The PEACE method consists of the following five steps (Marinoff, Reference Marinoff1999, pp. 37–51):

• Problem (P): Correctly identify the core problems.

• Emotion (E): Constructively express the client’s emotional reactions to the problems, making subsequent discussion possible.

• Analysis (A): Help solve the problems by rationally and logically considering the client’s various possible solutions, rather than merely trying to soothe the client or help them move on, as in traditional psychotherapy.

• Contemplation (C): Discover the intentions, thought frameworks, and environments that enable the client to make the best choices.

• Equilibrium (E): Achieve a state where the original problems are no longer perceived as problematic.

Figure 1.

Lou Marinoff’s “PEACE” Process Model

The philosophical aspect of the PEACE model lies in deeply exploring the rational choices made by individuals. Marinoff believes that the PEACE process is applicable to both individual counselling and organizational consulting. Therefore, he regards the PEACE model as the meta-methodology or universal framework of philosophical practice. Notably, the expression of emotions (E) is where this model overlaps with psychotherapy.

Another method for individual counselling that warrants mention is the philosophical reflection approach as applied by Gerd B. Achenbach, Anders Lindseth, and Peter Harteloh. This method involves a systematic reflection on the client’s words from a value-neutral point of view (aporia), enabling the client to reconstruct themselves as a person. While it resembles existential psychotherapy in its mirroring techniques, it differs in its philosophical nature and content, emphasizing recursive self-examination. The process moves from form to content, resulting in a renewal of the client’s consciousness (Harteloh, Reference Harteloh2024).

4.1 Historical Intellectual Resources of Philosophical Consultations

Philosophical practice has evolved significantly since the 1980s. Early pioneers such as Gerd B. Achenbach in Germany and Adriaan Hoogendijk in the Netherlands laid the groundwork for the field by establishing philosophical counselling as a distinct discipline. Their work emphasized the practical application of philosophical insights to everyday problems, distinguishing philosophical practice from traditional academic philosophy. Although a wide array of psychologists and psychotherapists like Karl Jaspers, Ludwig Binswanger, Solomon Eliot Asch, Carl Rogers, and Elliot D. Cohen had incorporated philosophical concepts into counselling, Achenbach and Hoogendijk were the first to explicitly initiate private philosophical counselling practices outside academia as alternatives to psychotherapy. This area of research focuses on influential philosophers and schools that provide intellectual resources for contemporary philosophical counselling. By clarifying the theoretical origins and intellectual inheritance of philosophical counselling, these studies support the legitimacy of contemporary philosophical counselling.

The history of philosophical consultations is deeply entwined with the broader history of philosophy. Philosophers have long engaged in dialogues and correspondences that resemble modern philosophical consultations. For instance, René Descartes extensively corresponded with Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia, discussing issues of ethics and the mind-body problem (Shapiro, Reference Shapiro2007). These letters can be seen as early forms of philosophical consultations, where philosophical insights are applied to personal concerns (Mochizuki & Harteloh, Reference Mochizuki and Harteloh2019). The medium has evolved from written letters to face-to-face dialogues, and now to virtual communications, but the essence of philosophical dialogue remains consistent. From Plato’s dialogues, where Socrates engages in profound philosophical discussions with various interlocutors, to contemporary virtual consultations, the practice of philosophical dialogue has been a continuous thread in the fabric of philosophy (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Zheng, Zhao and Ding2025; Gill, Reference Gill2012). This continuity underscores the fact that philosophical consultations are not a 20^th-century invention but have been inherent in the philosophical tradition throughout history.

Philosophical practice draws from a rich array of intellectual resources. The origins of Western philosophical practice are deeply rooted in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, with scholars focusing on the ideas of Socrates (Chen, Reference Chen2014; Weiss & Ohrem, Reference Weiss and Ohrem2016), Plato (Holger, Reference Holger2017), Aristotle (Li, Reference Li2010), Epicureanism (Fatić & Dentsoras, Reference Fatić and Dentsoras2014), and Stoicism (Mesaroș, Reference Mesaroș2020). Hadot explored the philosophies of Socrates, the Cynics, Aristotle, Epicureanism, and Stoicism, summarizing philosophy as a way of life. He argued that philosophy calls on people to strive for wisdom through spiritual exercises. Echoing Hadot’s view, William Ferraiolo (Reference Ferraiolo2010) points out that despite one being a slave (Epictetus) and the other an emperor (Marcus Aurelius), both Stoic philosophers’ ideas on self-control can help modern individuals rationally and effectively cope with the inevitable and uncontrollable ups and downs of life, thereby achieving inner peace and leading a good life. Aleksandar Fatić (Reference Fatić2014) contends that Epicureanism, as a universal life philosophy, can be a powerful tool for addressing emotional and existential issues in philosophical counselling.

In addition to ancient Greek and Roman philosophers, many modern and contemporary thinkers have contributed profound theories and intellectual resources to philosophical counselling. Donald Robertson (Reference Robertson1998) believes that contemporary philosophical counselling draws inspiration from the philosophical thoughts of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Martin Buber, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Leslie Spivak (Reference Spivak2004) notes that Kierkegaard’s philosophy of human freedom has significant explanatory power and relevance for philosophical counselling. Richard Shusterman (Reference Shusterman1997), through examining the philosophical theories and lives of pragmatists like John Dewey, Nelson Goodman, Richard Rorty, and Hilary Putnam, suggests that philosophy should be used to analyze and guide personal life, helping people live better.

Some scholars also interpret philosophical practice through the lens of traditional Chinese philosophy, including the teachings of Confucianism (Chen & Ni, Reference Chen and Ni2016; Lu, Reference Lu2004; Su, Reference Su2011) and Daoism (Guo, Reference Guo2023; Lahav, Reference Lahav1996). Ding et al. (Reference Ding, Fu, Jiao and Yu2024a) explore the integration of Confucian principles of self-cultivation into contemporary philosophical practice, emphasizing the combined application of gongfu (effort) and jingjie (spiritual state) in achieving unity of knowledge and action.

Xichen Lv (Reference Lv2007) combines Albert Ellis’ Rational Emotive Therapy and Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy with Daoist concepts such as adapting to nature, accepting circumstances, and the interdependence of fortune and misfortune to address anxiety and depression. Additionally, some scholars incorporate religious perspectives into philosophical practice, drawing on Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Jainism, and other traditions to supplement its intellectual resources (Casewell, Reference Casewell2022; Devarakonda, Reference Devarakonda2023; Hsu, Reference Hsu2011; Louw, Reference Louw2011; Pilpel & Gindi, Reference Pilpel and Gindi2019; Su, Reference Su2020). An important contribution to philosophical practice is Achenbach’s (Reference Achenbach2010) anthology Zur Einführung der Philosophischen Praxis. This collection compiles his key lectures, essays, dialogues, and conversations that encapsulate his pioneering work in philosophical practice. He emphasizes the importance of engaging with clients in open-ended philosophical dialogues, moving beyond rigid methodologies to foster genuine philosophical exploration.

In general, philosophical sources define philosophical practice as inherently philosophical, even though the philosophers referred to might not have been practitioners in the modern sense. There are basically four kinds of sources (see Figure 2):

1. (1) Philosophers Who Exemplify Philosophy as a Way of Life: This category includes philosophers like Socrates, the Stoics (e.g., Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius), Michel de Montaigne, Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Wittgenstein. They lived their philosophies, embodying their philosophical principles in their daily lives.

2. (2) Academic Philosophers Who Prepared the Way for Philosophical Practice: Philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Pierre Hadot, and Michel Foucault fall into this category. They bridged the gap between academic philosophy and philosophical practice, with Sartre, for instance, using plays, novels, and essays to disseminate existentialist ideas. Additionally, the ordinary language philosophy developed by A. J. Ayer and Paul Grice laid the groundwork for philosophical consultations with clients and guests who lack formal academic training.

3. (3) Academic Philosophers Who Worked on Concepts Suited for Defining Philosophical Practice as Philosophical: This includes philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Baruch de Spinoza, Karl Marx, Martin Heidegger, and others who developed foundational concepts and theories that inform philosophical practice.

4. (4) Non-Academically Trained Philosophers Who Exemplify Philosophy as a Way of Life: This includes authors like Harry Mulisch, Franz Kafka, Thomas Mann, and others who, through their literary works, explored profound philosophical themes and contributed to philosophical discourse.

Figure 2.

Sources of Philosophy as a Way of Life

4.2 Defining the Concept of “Philosophical Consultation”

When examining what philosophical practitioners are actually doing, a philosophical consultation can be defined as a one-on-one dialogue between a philosopher and a client (guest) in a private space, discussing questions, problems, worries, or themes in thinking or life using philosophical means and with a philosophical idea in mind (Harteloh, Reference Harteloh2023). This definition aligns with a general definition of psychotherapy as an interaction between a psychologist and a client for treating an unwanted mental state or disturbing behaviour with psychological means — a technique that can be learned or trained, aimed at a specified goal, with a theory of the normal and abnormal in mind. However, the differences between psychotherapy and philosophical consultations lie in the underlying idea (pathology versus philosophy), the intention (treatment versus discussion), object (unwanted mental state versus theme in life), means (standardized technique versus philosophizing), and relationship with the client (hierarchical versus “co-thinker”). A philosophical consultation can best be considered a philosophical investigation into meaning in line with the later Wittgenstein’s approach to philosophy as a form of therapy for the intellect (Wittgenstein, Reference Wittgenstein, Anscombe and Rhees1953).

Robertson (Reference Robertson1998) considers philosophical counselling, like applied ethics, to be a subfield of applied philosophy. In philosophical practice, practitioners and clients deal with personal, specific life issues. Philosophical practitioners, inspired by academic philosophy, use a series of philosophical techniques to make their dialogues with clients genuinely philosophical, addressing clients’ private, concrete life problems.

Lahav (Reference Lahav, Lahav and da Venza Tillmanns1995) views philosophical counselling as a form of worldview interpretation, proposing that different philosophical counselling approaches have various methods for interpreting worldviews. He asserts that underlying the diverse approaches in philosophical counselling is a principle: different aspects of everyday life can be interpreted as expressions of one’s concepts of self and the world. These concepts can be experiential or philosophical, and their sum constitutes a person’s worldview.

Lydia Amir (Reference Amir2004) equates philosophical counselling directly with its methods, suggesting that it is a collection of approaches that use philosophical ways to solve problems and dilemmas in daily life. Schuster (Reference Schuster1999) believes that philosophical counselling entails philosophical care for the client’s self through autonomous dialogue between the counsellor and the client.

4.3 Goals and Values of Philosophical Consultations

Philosophical practice is not merely the application of philosophy to an independent object, case, or person; it is philosophy as a way of life — living philosophical concepts. It represents a mode of philosophy where the act of philosophizing defines philosophy itself. One of philosophical practice’s primary aims is to discuss or resolve everyday cognitive dilemmas, shape individuals’ life philosophies, and establish personal value systems. Philosophical consultations support philosophy as a way of life, enabling participants not only to think about philosophers or philosophy but to philosophize themselves.

Michael Grosso (Reference Grosso2012) regards philosophical counselling as a conceptual art, asserting that its purpose is to help clients view their problems in new ways, enabling them to overcome these issues differently. Yohsuke Tsuchiya and Mai Miyata (Reference Tsuchiya and Miyata2015) consider philosophical counselling a feasible tool in Philosophy for Children (P4C) to develop children’s intellectual virtues. Beyond training in thinking methods and the pursuit of wisdom, some researchers advocate that philosophical counselling is an important means for ethical virtue education. Barbara Jones (Reference Jones2012) views cabaret comedy as a form of philosophical counselling, where performers provide moral education to the audience by narrating personal stories of universal significance. James A. Tuedio (Reference Tuedio2003) points out that philosophical counselling does not promise ultimate utilitarian outcomes; the philosopher’s sole responsibility is to engage in continuous inquiry and questioning.

Tianqun Pan (Reference Pan2021) advocates for thought analysis, combining Socratic dialogue with logical analysis to alleviate cognitive-induced suffering and help people achieve better lives in the technosociety. Marinoff suggests that many modern mental issues stem from deep existential problems, value conflicts, and the search for life’s meaning rather than mere biochemical imbalances. His book Plato, Not Prozac! challenges traditional perceptions of mental health interventions, demonstrating how philosophical ideas can address psychological problems and enhance mental well-being (Marinoff, Reference Marinoff1999).

Qian Ouyang (Reference Ouyang2012) views philosophical counselling as a form of practical philosophy that rejuvenates the “spiritual healing” function of philosophy. Additionally, fostering critical thinking is a key objective. Ding et al. (Reference Ding, Yu and Han2022) advocate using Socratic dialogue to cultivate critical thinking, viewing philosophical practice as a dialectical process that examines and exposes ineffective thinking patterns leading to false or inconsistent beliefs, thereby avoiding logical fallacies.

Blanka Šulavíková (Reference Šulavíková2011) explores the central role of critical thinking in philosophical practice, particularly through Socratic dialogue, to achieve an understanding of truth (Ollinheimo & Hakkarainen, Reference Ollinheimo and Hakkarainen2023). Philosophical practice is also seen as a crucial means and technique for achieving humanistic care in ideological and political education (Huang, Reference Huang2011, Reference Huang2014; Wang, Reference Wang2018; Yu, Reference Yu2021). The core of humanistic care in ideological and political education lies in value care, aiming to alleviate spiritual crises characterized by loss of meaning and misdirected value pursuits. To address these issues, Xisheng Wang proposes “thought counselling” to resolve intellectual dilemmas, relieve spiritual distress, and enhance the effectiveness of ideological and political education (Wang, Reference Wang2014, Reference Wang2018).

Furthermore, philosophical counselling supports philosophy as a practice, an art of living, guiding individuals in the pursuit of a meaningful and well-examined life. This involves adopting philosophical principles that promote personal growth, ethical behaviour, and emotional balance. By integrating these aims, philosophical practice seeks to enhance overall well-being and autonomy.

4.4 The Relationship Between Philosophical Consultations and Psychotherapy

Philosophical practitioners address a wide range of issues, from personal existential crises to ethical dilemmas in professional settings. The versatility of philosophical practice makes it applicable to a broad audience, enhancing its relevance and impact.

An important mission of contemporary philosophical counselling since its inception has been to challenge the theoretical assumptions, methods, and effectiveness of psychological counselling and psychotherapy. Many researchers view philosophical counselling as an alternative to psychological counselling and psychotherapy, attempting to provide rational life guidance independently through philosophical counselling without using any psychotherapeutic means (Achenbach et al., Reference Achenbach, Fischer, Macho, Marquard and Martens1984; Marinoff, Reference Marinoff2001; Raabe, Reference Raabe2010). Contrarily, J. Michael Russell (Reference Russell2001) argues that simply comparing what philosophical counsellors and psychotherapists do and why they do it reveals no clear and distinct boundary between the two. Amir (Reference Amir2004) also points out that a decisive component in philosophical counselling is the philosophical counsellor’s relevant psychological expertise and experience; otherwise, the counsellor may become lost in their own philosophical labyrinth.

Philosophical practice shares some similarities with psychotherapy, particularly in its focus on personal development and problem-solving. However, there are key differences. Philosophical practice emphasizes philosophical reasoning and dialogue, while psychotherapy often focuses on psychological theories and therapeutic techniques. Understanding these differences is crucial for defining the unique contributions of philosophical practice.

Scholars often differentiate between philosophical practice and psychotherapy based on concepts, theoretical foundations, objectives, methods, and target audiences (Dâlcu, Reference Dâlcu2022; Fischer, Reference Fischer2011; Sivil, Reference Sivil2009; Valencia Magallón, Reference Valencia Magallón2019; Wei, Reference Wei2013; Yang, Reference Yang2015; Yu, Reference Yu2010). Some argue that philosophical counselling is more effective than psychological counselling in clarifying clients’ confused belief systems or providing better beliefs (Li, Reference Li2015). Harteloh (Reference Harteloh2023) notes that philosophical practice transcends traditional psychotherapy by focusing on resolving philosophical issues in life through dialogue, rather than merely treating psychological disorders. Other scholars view philosophical counselling and psychotherapy as complementary (Cohen, Reference Cohen2013a; Hațegan, Reference Hațegan2019b; Liu & Ge, Reference Liu and Ge2011; Zhou & Liu, Reference Zhou and Liu2009). However, there is debate over whether philosophical counselling can be considered a form of therapy (Šulavíková, Reference Šulavíková2012).

Some researchers believe that although philosophical counselling cannot completely replace psychotherapy, psychotherapists need to utilize philosophical counselling to provide clients with more effective and profound means of alleviating psychological disorders. Therefore, they view philosophical counselling as a supplementary tool to psychotherapy (Cohen, Reference Cohen2013b). Jon Mills (Reference Mills2001) asserts that philosophical counselling is a form of psychotherapy, but it requires structure and guidance to develop into a reliable approach for solving psychological problems — a “philosophical-psychological” paradigm in theory and practice.

In exploring the relationship between philosophical consultations and various forms of psychotherapy, it is evident that certain psychotherapeutic approaches have deeply rooted philosophical foundations. Sigmund Freud introduced theories that delve into the unconscious mind, exploring concepts such as eros (life instincts) and thanatos (death instincts) (Freud, 1920/Reference Freud and Strachey1955). Freud’s speculations on these fundamental human drives reflect philosophical inquiries into human nature, ethics, and the meaning of existence. Some contemporary scholars suggest that Freud’s work straddles the boundary between psychology and philosophy, positing that he could be considered a philosopher in his own right due to his profound reflections on the human condition (DiCenso, Reference DiCenso2005; Falque, Reference Falque2020; Wakefield, Reference Wakefield2018).

Similarly, Rogers’ Client-Centered Therapy emphasizes the individual’s subjective experience and innate capacity for self-actualization (Rogers, Reference Rogers1951). This humanistic approach fosters an environment of empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard, enabling clients to explore their inner thoughts and feelings freely. The focus on personal growth and self-exploration resonates with philosophical counselling’s emphasis on dialogue and self-understanding. Rogers’ approach is sometimes regarded as philosophical because it centres on existential themes, such as authenticity and the search for meaning, which are fundamental concerns in philosophy (Cooper, Reference Cooper2003).

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), while already acknowledged for its Stoic roots, also reflects principles associated with Descartes. Descartes’ emphasis on rational thought and doubt (“cogito, ergo sum”) underscores the power of cognition in understanding reality (Descartes, 1641/Reference Descartes1998). CBT posits that dysfunctional thinking patterns contribute to emotional distress and behavioural issues, and by challenging and modifying these thoughts, individuals can achieve emotional well-being (Beck, Reference Beck1976). The Cartesian focus on systematic doubt and rational analysis parallels CBT’s techniques of identifying and restructuring maladaptive beliefs (Hofmann et al., Reference Hofmann, Asmundson and Beck2013).

Furthermore, Systems Therapy, including Family Systems Therapy developed by Murray Bowen (Reference Bowen1985), introduces a holistic perspective by considering individuals within the context of their relationships and broader social systems. This approach aligns with philosophical notions of interconnectedness and the social dimensions of human existence, as explored by Buber in his concept of the “I-Thou” relationship (Buber, Reference Buber1970). Philosophical consultations often incorporate discussions about the individual’s role within their familial and social networks, examining how these relationships impact their personal challenges and philosophical outlooks (Goldenberg et al., Reference Goldenberg, Stanton and Goldenberg2016).

In summary, while philosophical consultations and various psychotherapeutic approaches may share common goals and overlap in certain techniques, philosophical counselling distinguishes itself by grounding its practice in philosophical theories and methodologies, explicitly. It emphasizes open-ended dialogue, critical reflection, and the exploration of existential questions, aiming to empower individuals to construct their own meanings and philosophies of life. Psychotherapy has its roots in philosophy, yet its adoption of a medical/therapeutic model often obscures these underlying philosophical foundations. Recognizing the interplay between philosophy and psychology enriches both fields, offering a more comprehensive understanding of human thought and behaviour.

4.5 Diverse Methods and Models of Philosophical Consultations

Philosophical counselling exhibits significant methodological diversity, reflecting the varied philosophical resources and approaches that practitioners draw upon in their counselling activities. Philosophers may adopt different methods they find effective as vehicles for engaging with clients, with common approaches including the Socratic dialogue, phenomenological analysis, and existential questioning. These methodologies aim to foster self-reflection and critical thinking, enabling individuals to gain deeper insights into their lives and challenges.

While philosophical practice is often thought to require a methodical or structured approach to guide its process, this assumption is not universally accepted. Raabe (Reference Raabe2001) argues that the field of philosophical practice has yet to reach a consensus on whether specific methods are necessary or if there should be a single definitive method. Achenbach argues against the necessity for any specific method. He believes that philosophical practice should be flexible and adaptable, emphasizing the importance of a free, open-ended dialogue that responds to the unique needs and contexts of each individual (Achenbach et al., Reference Achenbach, Fischer, Macho, Marquard and Martens1984). Rigid adherence to a particular method, in his view, could constrain the dynamic and exploratory nature of philosophical inquiry.

Harteloh (Reference Harteloh2013a) argues that a philosophical consultation should be guided by a central philosophical idea. When a philosopher translates a client’s expressions into concepts — such as justice, freedom, or happiness — and situates them within their historical context, the consultation attains a distinctly philosophical character. For instance, if a client discusses autonomy, the consultant can examine the concept’s definition and its role in the client’s worldview by relating it to its philosophical heritage. Consequently, the consultant may offer alternative interpretations that broaden the client’s perspective and help resolve their dilemma (Harteloh, Reference Harteloh2023).

In light of these differing perspectives, our exploration of philosophical practice acknowledges both the potential benefits of methodical approaches and the arguments for a more fluid, individualized practice. This balanced view allows for a broader understanding of how philosophical practice can be effectively conducted, accommodating various philosophical traditions and practitioner preferences. The emphasis on principles over prescriptive methods aligns with the core tenets of philosophy, encouraging adaptability and personal transformation through critical reflection and dialogue.

When considering method versus principle, Achenbach posits that philosophical counselling is characterized not by a fixed method but by the flexibility to apply various approaches (e.g., analytics, phenomenology, hermeneutics) in a manner tailored to each client. Instead of adhering to a uniform procedure, the process is guided by overarching philosophical principles (Achenbach et al., Reference Achenbach, Fischer, Macho, Marquard and Martens1984). According to Achenbach, counselling should not adhere to a standardized method, which risks reproducing the person as a product of that method. Instead, embracing philosophical principles allows for individual adjustment and empowers the person to reconstruct themselves authentically in response to their unique situation.

Various scholars have proposed different methods and forms of philosophical practice. Representative approaches and principles include:

• Beyond-Method Method (Achenbach et al., Reference Achenbach, Fischer, Macho, Marquard and Martens1984)

• Spiritual Exercises Method (Hadot, Reference Hadot1995)

• Worldview Interpretation Method (Lahav, Reference Lahav, Lahav and da Venza Tillmanns1995)

• PEACE Process (Marinoff, Reference Marinoff2001)

• FIIT Method (Raabe, Reference Raabe2001)

• Existential Method (Russell, Reference Russell2001)

• LBT (Cohen, Reference Cohen2003a)

• C.I.S.A. Method (Li, Reference Li2007)

• Roman Stoicism Method (Lahav, Reference Lahav2009)

• Neo-Socratic Dialogue (Littig, Reference Littig2010)

• IDEA Method (Ferraiolo, Reference Ferraiolo2010)

• Issues Tree Method (Raabe, Reference Raabe2013)

• Thought Analysis (Pan, Reference Pan2013)

• Thought Counselling (Wang, Reference Wang2014)

• Epicurean Method (Fatić & Dentsoras, Reference Fatić and Dentsoras2014)

• Humor Method (Amir, Reference Amir2014)

• Poetry Method (Rolfs, Reference Rolfs2015)

• APA Method (Ding, Reference Ding2016)

• Reflexive Method (Harteloh, Reference Harteloh2023)

Philosophical practice also encompasses various forms such as philosophical cafés (Ding, Reference Ding2019; Grosso, Reference Grosso2002; Harteloh, Reference Harteloh2019; Katinić & Janeš, Reference Katinić and Janeš2021), P4C (Daniel & Auriac, Reference Daniel and Auriac2011; Juuso, Reference Juuso2007; Pan, Reference Pan2007), and philosophical walks (Harteloh, Reference Harteloh2013b). Harteloh expands the concept of the philosophical walk, framing it as more than a physical activity, but as an exploration of the mind. By walking, choosing specific routes, and engaging in dialogue, philosophical walks encourage interaction with nature and society, fostering deep philosophical reflection. For instance, a philosophical walk was held at Nanjing University in 2013 (Harteloh, Reference Harteloh2021). Harteloh’s approach integrates core philosophical skills like contemplation, questioning, and conceptualization, creating a unique experience that connects concepts, philosophical wisdom, and place.

4.6 Admission Criteria, Training Methods, Value Norms, and Ethical Guidelines in the Philosophical Consultation Industry

As a relatively young profession still maturing and improving, philosophical counselling faces practical issues related to its operation and development. Eric Hoffman (Reference Hoffman2003) provides a reasonable plan for the future development of philosophical counsellors and organizations, advocating for standardized training and clear professional guidelines. David A. Jopling (Reference Jopling1996) cautions the public about potential dangers that might arise in certain situations involving philosophical counselling, highlighting the need for ethical vigilance. Mills (Reference Mills1999) examines the professional ethical codes issued by the Canadian Society for Philosophical Practice, the APPA, and the American Society for Philosophy, Counseling, and Psychotherapy, pointing out ambiguities within these codes and advocating for clearer ethical standards. Schuster (Reference Schuster1999) offers practical advice for American philosophical counsellors concerned about legal liability, emphasizing the importance of ethical practice and professional responsibility.

Recent studies have further explored the professionalization of philosophical counselling. Julia Clare and Richard Sivil (Reference Clare and Sivil2014) discuss the standards for training and certifying philosophical practitioners, emphasizing the need for comprehensive education that includes both philosophical knowledge and counselling skills. Tim LeBon (Reference LeBon2001) examines the ethical responsibilities of philosophical counsellors, highlighting the importance of establishing clear ethical guidelines to protect both clients and practitioners. These discussions underscore the ongoing efforts within the philosophical counselling community to formalize training programs, standardize qualifications, and enhance the professional integrity of the field.

Specifically, prominent issues in the education and training of philosophical consultation include:

1. (1) Philosophical Competencies as Part of the Program

2. Philosophical competencies are central to training programs for philosophical practitioners. Harteloh (Reference Harteloh2010) highlights critical skills for philosophical counselling, including logical analysis, ethical reasoning, hermeneutical understanding, and dialectical dialogue, while categorizing practical skills as questioning, interpreting, and understanding. Practitioners must excel in constructing and deconstructing complex arguments, identifying underlying assumptions, and facilitating meaningful discussions. They should also develop metaphors to articulate and clarify meaning during client interactions. Moreover, familiarity with both Western and non-Western philosophical traditions equips practitioners with a diverse toolkit to address clients’ concerns from multiple perspectives and situate their discourse within a long-standing intellectual tradition.

3. (2) Literature Used in the Program

4. Training programs incorporate a wide range of philosophical texts to establish a solid theoretical foundation. Core readings include classical works like Plato’s dialogues, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, and Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason, alongside modern texts such as Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations and Heidegger’s Being and Time. Practical works, including Achenbach et al.’s (Reference Achenbach, Fischer, Macho, Marquard and Martens1984) Philosophical Practice and Marinoff’s (Reference Marinoff1999) Plato, Not Prozac!, link theory to application. This diverse curriculum enables practitioners to draw on relevant ideas during consultations. Furthermore, it enables students to identify philosophical reference points that substantiate their practice as inherently philosophical.

5. (3) Requirement of a Master’s Degree in Philosophy for Entry

6. As philosophical practice builds on the inherent human capacity for philosophizing, the requirement of a master’s degree in philosophy for entry remains contested. Academic training does not necessarily produce the communicative skills essential for effective philosophical practice; a graduate may excel in theoretical philosophy yet lack the aptitude for engaging, practical dialogue. Conversely, a non-academically trained individual can develop strong skills in questioning, speculating, and interpreting ideas during interpersonal communication. In everyday language, such a person is simply regarded as “a philosopher.” Organizations like the APPA argue that advanced academic training ensures rigorous understanding of philosophical methods (APPA, n.d.). Critics contend that strict requirements may exclude capable practitioners and overlook interdisciplinary insights. The debate centres around balancing the need for rigorous philosophical expertise with inclusivity and recognition of diverse educational backgrounds (Clare & Sivil, Reference Clare and Sivil2014).

7. (4) Admission Criteria for Persons Without a Master’s Degree in Philosophy

8. For applicants without a master’s degree, alternative criteria may include portfolios, prior studies, and relevant professional experience. An entry interview conducted by experienced philosophical practitioners can serve to assess and recognize an individual’s aptitude as a philosopher, based on their attitude and mode of reasoning. Some programs offer foundational courses or assessments to evaluate philosophical competencies. These pathways aim to maintain standards while broadening access to the profession (LeBon, Reference LeBon2001).

9. (5) Development of the Student (Bildung) and Duration of Training

10. The development of the student, or Bildung, refers to the holistic educational process focused on personal and intellectual growth. The student must develop a personal practice style by integrating the program’s core elements — cultivating wisdom, studying philosophers’ biographies as models, interpreting original texts, and engaging in targeted exercises. Programs typically span 1–2 years, combining theoretical instruction and study of examples with supervised practice, workshops, and mentorship. Requirements vary; the focus is on knowledge, interpersonal skills, self-awareness, and ethical sensitivity (Mills, Reference Mills1999).

11. (6) Graduation Criteria (Thesis, Consultations, Supervision)

12. Graduation requires both academic and practical achievements. Students may complete a thesis or research project demonstrating their grasp of philosophical counselling principles. However, the most crucial requirement is that they demonstrate their skills through a series of recorded consultations. Practical components often include at least one year of supervised consultations to develop hands-on experience. Supervision by experienced practitioners ensures skill refinement and ethical adherence (Hoffman, Reference Hoffman2003). For example, according to the guidelines set by the Korean Society of Philosophical Counseling, in order to qualify as a professional counsellor, candidates must hold a master’s degree or higher, complete over 240 hours of philosophy-related coursework, participate in more than 160 hours of workshops, engage in at least 50 hours of societal activities, and complete over 70 hours of activities under the supervision. In addition, they are required to present at least one counselling case and publish at least three independent research papers.

In summary, the academic community has developed relatively mature and comprehensive research on the theories and applications of philosophical counselling, achieving significant breakthroughs and innovations in developing various counselling models and methods. In particular, Chinese scholars have made substantial achievements in theoretical introductions and in excavating the practical thoughts and wisdom in traditional Chinese philosophy (Ding et al., Reference Ding, Xie and Yu2024c). The continued growth and professionalization of philosophical counselling hinge upon addressing these educational and ethical considerations, ensuring that practitioners are well-equipped to meet the evolving needs of clients. Philosophical practice offers an alternative career path beyond traditional academic roles. Instead of pursuing positions as teachers or researchers after completing an academic study in philosophy, students can be trained to become practicing philosophers. This approach enables them to conduct private practices outside of the university setting, serving a diverse clientele that may include individuals, schools, or companies. This form of practice emphasizes the practical application of philosophical insights, fostering direct engagement with real-world dilemmas while also drawing on the rich traditions of philosophical inquiry.

5.1 The Rise of Philosophical Counselling as a Global Profession

As a new dynamic in philosophical research, philosophical practice has given rise to a distinct profession: philosophical counselling. In some respects, the professionalization of philosophical counselling has preceded theoretical research or at least progressed simultaneously with it. The establishment of a specialized philosophical practice institution by German philosopher Gerd B. Achenbach in 1981 marked the formal beginning of contemporary philosophical counselling in a private practice outside academia. It is important to distinguish between philosophical practice and counselling; while the philosophical practice movement predates this period, explicit philosophical counselling truly began with Achenbach, building upon earlier implicit integrations of philosophy in psychological counselling.

As previously discussed, philosophical counselling, as a form of consultation, engages clients in philosophical dialogue to help them reflect on significant life events, resolve grief and pain arising from major transitions, and find meaning and purpose. These are crucial issues that most people face at some stage in their lives. Rather than merely applying the insights of great philosophers — a concept more suited to psychological counselling — philosophical counselling involves co-philosophizing with clients, fostering a collaborative exploration of ideas and beliefs.

At present, many philosophical counsellors practice part-time; their primary roles involve teaching and conducting academic research in universities or colleges. However, some work full-time in this field and operate as freelancers. Philosophical counselling is not yet a traditional job category and has not been incorporated into government-regulated labour market or healthcare systems. It remains largely a personal endeavour by philosophers employing their intellect and knowledge, characterized by distinctive independence. Some philosophical practitioners establish their own institutes, create personal websites, and affiliate with philosophical practice associations to attract clients and generate business. Their communication methods are not limited to face-to-face conversations but also leverage the conveniences of the digital age, developing consultation methods using modern communication tools such as telephone, email, and video conferencing platforms like Zoom or Tencent Meeting.

5.2 Advancing Professional Standards and Qualifications in Philosophical Counselling

For philosophical counsellors, philosophy has become a tool that not only enriches lives but also provides a viable career path, enabling them to make a living and establish themselves professionally. In today’s global economic climate, this is undoubtedly encouraging news for philosophy graduates who face significant challenges in the job market. Many philosophy departments have included “philosophical counselling” as a potential career direction for philosophy graduates in their enrollment brochures and provide or recommend relevant professional training courses to students.

To obtain professional qualifications and become a certified philosophical practitioner, certain conditions must be met. Taking the APPA as an example, certification can be achieved through invitation, application, or training. Distinguished practitioners may be invited to become Certified Members or join the APPA Faculty. Experienced practitioners meeting APPA requirements can apply for certification. The APPA also offers Level I (introductory) and Level II (advanced) programs in counselling, facilitation, and consulting. Programs are conducted globally under APPA Faculty supervision, covering foundational skills, advanced case analyses, and practical applications. The APPA emphasizes professional virtues of expertise, excellence, and integrity, with stringent certification standards to ensure high-quality practice.

Currently, alongside the rapid increase in the number of philosophical practitioners, the client base for philosophical practice is continually expanding. More individuals, groups, and organizations are consciously and proactively seeking help from philosophers. A comparative analysis of user traffic data via the Similarweb platform shows that in May 2025, the official APPA website recorded 3,512 visits — representing a 51.39% decrease compared to April 2025 — with an average on-site visit duration of 38 seconds. In contrast, the NPCA website registered 2,267 visits in May 2025 — a 49.36% increase over April 2025 — with an average on-site visit duration of 2 minutes and 25 seconds. Additionally, the influence of philosophical practice on mainstream academic philosophy is becoming increasingly significant. The interaction between philosophical practice and academic philosophy, traditionally limited to teaching and theoretical research, has yielded fruitful results.

Philosophical practice reveals new approaches in philosophical research, necessitating the introduction of new resources and methods distinct from traditional philosophical exploration. In other words, it employs existing philosophical theories and methods in innovative ways or from different angles in daily human life. The field of philosophical practice is undoubtedly exciting; its emergence closely links philosophy with issues that laypersons care about. Simultaneously, philosophical practice is striving to become a genuine discipline within the academic philosophical establishment. As an application of philosophy, it has raised new philosophical questions in many aspects of philosophical life (Li et al., Reference Li, Ding and Li2024).

Therefore, philosophical practice is both a profession — a new member of applied philosophy — and a philosophical topic — a new paradigm in philosophical research. The shift from a theoretical paradigm to a practical paradigm essentially transforms philosophy from an exclusive, elite academic pursuit into a secular culture in which everyone can participate.