1. The work of historical sociologist Margaret Somers both theorized and historicized the concept of citizenship in British history. See, for example, Somers, Margaret R., “Citizenship and the Place of the Public Sphere, Law, Community and Political Culture in the Transition to Democracy,” American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 587–620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2. Anderson, Margaret Lavinia, Practicing Democracy: Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany (Princeton, 2000)Google Scholar. See the review essay by Berghahn, Volker, “The German Empire 1871–1914: Reflections on the Direction of Recent Research,” and Anderson's reply, “Reply to Volker Berghahn,” in Central European History 35, no. 1 (2002): 75–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

3. Here very recent studies related to citizenship and gender constitute an exception. See Sneeringer's, JuliaWinning Women's Votes: Propaganda and Politics in Weimar Germany (Chapel Hill, 2002)Google Scholar, which examines the constructions of female citizenship by party political propaganda, and Lauterer's, HeidemarieParliamentarierinnen in Deutschland 1918/19–1949 (Königstein, Taunus, 2002).Google Scholar

4. Eley, Geoff and Nield, Keith, “Farewell to the Working Class?” International Labor and Working Class History 57 (Spring 2000): 1–30. Contributing to this scholarly controversy with replies were Stephen Kotkin, Barbara Weinstein, Don Kalb, Frederick Cooper, and Joan W. ScottCrossRefGoogle Scholar

5. Joan W. Scott, “The ‘Class’ We Have Lost,” in ibid., 69–75.

6. Frederick Cooper makes this point far more elegantly in his response to Eley and Nield: “Farewell to the Category-Producing Class?” in ibid., 60–68. Also see Barbara Weinstein's reply, “Where Do New Ideas (About Class) Come From?” in the same issue, 53–59.

7. See the retrospective in Lenard R. Berlanstein, “Introduction,” in idem, Rethinking Labor History: Essays on Discourse and Class Analysis (Urbana, 1993), 1.Google Scholar

8. For some of the early debates on Alltagsgeschichte, see Medick, Hans, “‘Missionäre im Ruderboot?’ Ethnologische Erkenntnisweisen als Herausforderung an die Sozialgeschichte,” Geschichte and Gesellschaft 10, no. 3 (1984): 295–319Google Scholar and the responses in the same issue by Kocka, Jürgen, “Zurück zur Erzählung? Pläydoyer für historische Argumentation,” 395–408Google Scholar and Tenfelde, Klaus, “Schwierigkeiten mit dem Alltag,” 376–394Google Scholar. Lüdtke's, Alf essay, “Organizational Order or Eigensinn? Workers' Privacy and Workers' Politics in Imperial Germany,” in Rites of Power: Symbolism, Ritual and Politics since the Middle Ages, ed. Wilentz, Sean (Philadelphia, 1985), 303–34Google Scholar, played an important role in the U.S. reception of Alltagsgeschichte. For incisive overviews see Crew, David F., “Alltagsgeschichte: A New Social History from Below?” Central European History 22, nos. 3 and 4 (09/12, 1989): 394–407CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Eley, Geoff, “Labor History, Social History, Alltagsgeschichte: Experience, Culture and the Politics of the Everyday — A New Direction for German Social History?” Journal of Modern History 61 (06 1989): 297–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9. Frader, Laura L. and Rose, Sonya O., “Introduction,” Gender and Class in Modern Europe (Ithaca, 1996), 4.Google Scholar

10. Berlanstein, , “Introduction,” 8.Google Scholar

11. Here I recall my own participation as a graduate student in a transatlantic workshop, which Vernon Lidtke organized at Johns Hopkins in 1983, on comparative German and American workers' cultures, in which this very difference led to some heated discussion among the participants.

12. Frader, and Rose, , Gender and Class in Modern Europe, 19.Google Scholar

13. Kelly, Joan Gadol, “The Social Relation of the Sexes: Methodological Implications of Women's History,” Signs 1, no. 4 (1976): 809–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Also see her essay collection, Women, History, and Theory: The Essays of Joan Kelly (Chicago, 1984).Google Scholar

14. Newton, Judith L., Ryan, Mary P. and Walkowitz, Judith R., eds., Sex and Class in Women's History (London, 1983).Google Scholar

15. Alexander, Sally, “Women, Class and Sexual Differences in the 1830s and 1840s: Some Reflections on the Writing of a Feminist History,” History Workshop 17 (1984): 125–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

16. Canning, Kathleen, “Feminist History after the Linguistic Turn: Historicizing Discourse and Experience, Signs 19, no. 2 (Winter 1994): 368–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

17. Sewell, William H. Jr., “Toward a Post-Materialist Rhetoric for Labor History,” in Rethinking Labor History, ed. Berlanstein, 17Google Scholar; Eley, and Nield, , “Farewell,” 3.Google Scholar

18. Debates about the linguistic turn were already underway at this time among scholars of intellectual history. See, for example, Toews, John, “Intellectual History after the Linguistic Turn: The Autonomy of Meaning and the Irreducibility of Experience,” American Historical Review 92 (10 1987): 879–907CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In Scott's, Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988)Google Scholar, Part II includes essays on Thompson's, E.P.The Making of the English Working ClassGoogle Scholar and Jones's, StedmanLanguages of Class: Studies in English Working Class HistoryGoogle Scholar; Part III includes three essays on the representations of women's work in France in the mid-nineteenth century; and Part IV includes the essay on “The Sears Case,” which analyzes the resonances of the “equality-difference” debate in the sex-discrimination suit that the U.S. government's Equal Opportunity Commission filed in 1978 against Sears, Roebuck & Company on behalf of its female sales personnel.

19. Baron, Ava, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991).Google Scholar

20. Canning, Kathleen, “Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History,” American Historical Review 97, no. 3 (06 1992): 745–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

21. On the class and “non-class” lines of distinction, see Kocka's, JürgenWeder Stand noch Klasse: Unterschichten urn 1800 (Bonn, 1990)Google Scholar and Arbeitsverhältnisse und Arbeiterexistenzen: Grundlagen der Klassenkildung im 19. Jahrhundert (Bonn, 1990).Google Scholar

22. Two excellent examples include von Oertzen, Christine, Teilzeit und die Lust am Zuverdienen:. Geschlechterpolitik und gesellschaftlicher Wandel in Westdeutschland, 1948–1969 (Göttingen, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Schüle, Annegret, “Die Spinne”: Die Erfahrungsgeschichte weiblicher Industriearbeit im VEB Leipziger Baumwollspinnerei (Leipzig, 2001).Google Scholar

23. See, for example, Hagemann, Karen, Frauenalltag und Männerpolitik: Alltagsleben und gesellschaftliches Handeln von Arbeiterfrauen in der Weimarer Republik (Bonn, 1990)Google Scholar; Ellerkamp, Marlene, Industriearbeit, Krankheit und Geschlecht (Göttingen, 1991)Google Scholar; Hausen, Karin, ed., Geschlechterhierarchie und Arbeitsteilung: Zur Geschichte ungleicher Erwerbschancen von Männern und Frauen (Göttingen, 1993)Google Scholar; Kerchner, Brigitte, Beruf und Geschlecht: Frauenberufsverbände in Deutschland 1848–1908 (Göttingen, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rouette, Susanne, Sozialpolitik als Geschlechterpolitik: Die Regulierung der Frauenarbeit nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg (Frankfurt am Main, 1993)Google Scholar; and Schmitt, Sabine, Der Arbeiterinnenschutz im deutschen Kaiserreich: Zur Konstruktion der schutzbedürftigen Arbeiterin (Stuttgart, 1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

24. For additional Anglo-Saxon debates, see International Labor and Working-Class History (Fall 1994 Special Issue) “What Next for Labor and Working-Class History?” The synthetic volumes appeared in a series edited by Gerhard A. Ritter entitled Geschichte der Arbeiter und die Arbeiterbewe-gung in Deutschland seit dem Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts; they include in particular: Kocka's two volumes, Weder Stand noch Klasse and Arbeitsverhältnisse und Arbeiterexistenzen; as well as Ritter, Gerhard A. and Tenfelde, Klaus, eds., Arbeiter im deutschen Kaiserreich, 1871 bis 1914 (Bonn, 1992).Google Scholar

25. Sewell, , “Toward a Post-Materialist Rhetoric.”Google Scholar

26. A partial list of these books includes: Rose, Sonya O., Limited Livelihoods (1992)Google Scholar; Clark, Anna, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (Berkeley, 1994)Google Scholar; Liu, Tessie, The Weaver's Knot: The Contradictions of Class Struggle and Family Solidarity in Western France, 1750–1914 (Ithaca, 1994)Google Scholar; Tabili, Laura, “We Ask for British Justice”: Workers and Racial Difference in Late Imperial Britain (Ithaca, 1994)Google Scholar; Valenze, Deborah, The First Industrial Woman (New York, 1995)Google Scholar; Downs, Laura Lee, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914–1939 (Ithaca, 1995)Google Scholar; Coffin, Judith G., The Politics of Women's Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750–1915 (Princeton, 1996)Google Scholar; Canning, Kathleen, Languages of Labor and Gender (Ithaca, 1996)Google Scholar; Auslander, Leora, Taste and Power: Furnishing Modern France (Berkeley, 1997)Google Scholar; and Green, Nancy L., Ready-to-Wear and Ready-to-Work: A Century of Industry and Immigrants in Paris and New York (Durham, 1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

27. This example is taken from my study, Languages of Labor and Gender.

28. See, for example, Davidoff, Leonore and Hall, Catherine, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (Chicago, 1987)Google Scholar; Lewis, Jane, ed., Labour and Love: Women's Experience of Home and Family 1850–1940 (London, 1986)Google Scholar; Ross, Ellen, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870–1918 (Oxford, 1993)Google Scholar; Auslander, Leora, “The Gendering of Consumer Practices in Nineteenth-Century France,” in The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective, ed. de Grazia, Victoria and Furlough, Ellen, (Berkeley, 1996), 79–112; see especially de Grazia's essay, “Empowering Women as Citizen-Consumers,” in the same volume, 275–86.Google Scholar

29. Coffin, Judith G., “Consumption, Production, and Gender: The Sewing Machine in Nineteenth-Century France,” in Gender and Class in Modern Europe, ed. Frader, and Rose, , 121. Also see her excellent book, The Politics of Women's Work.Google Scholar

30. Green, , Ready-to- Wear and Ready-to-Work.Google Scholar Also see the pathbreaking book by Auslander, Leora, Taste and Power.Google Scholar

31. Coffin, , The Politics of Women's Work, 9.Google Scholar

32. de Grazia, and Furlough, , eds., “Introduction,” in The Sex of Things, 4–5.Google Scholar

33. See, for example, the forum on “Women, Work and Citizenship,” International Labor and Working-Class History 52 (Fall 1997): 1–71.Google Scholar Contributors include Louise Tilly, Chiara Saraceno, Ann Shola Orloff, Roderick Phillips, and W. Robert Lee. On social insurance see Eghigian, Greg, Making Security Social: Disability, Insurance, and the Birth of the Social Entitlement State in Germany (Ann Arbor, 2000). See also the excellent work on youth and the welfare state by Elizabeth Harvey and Edward Ross Dickinson.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

34. Frader, and Rose, , eds., Gender and Class in Modern Europe, 15Google Scholar. For an excellent analysis of the meaning of labor for male citizenship claims, see Keith McClelland, “Rational and Respectable Men: Gender, the Working Class, and Citizenship in Britain, 1850–1867,” in ibid., 280–93.

35. Lidtke, Vernon L., The Outlawed Party: Social Democracy in Germany 1878–1890 (Princeton, 1966)Google Scholar. On suffrage, see Kühne, Thomas, Dreiklassenwahlrecht und Wahlkultur in Preussen 1867–1914 (Düsseldorf, 1994) and Anderson, Practicing Democracy.Google Scholar

36. See Conrad, Christoph and Kocka, Jürgen, eds., Staatsbürgerschaft in Europa: Hislorische Erfahrungen und akutelle Debatten (Hamburg, 2001), especially, Einführung,” 9–26Google Scholar; Turner, Bryan S., “Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship,” in Citizenship and Social TheoryGoogle Scholar, ed. idem (London, 1993), 2–3 and Turner, Bryan S. and Hamilton, Peter, eds., Citizenship: Critical Concepts (London, 1994)Google Scholar; and Andrews, Geoff, ed., Citizenship (London, 1991)Google Scholar. On the dual nature of citizenship as a status and a practice, see Lister, Ruth, “Citizenship: Towards a Feminist Synthesis,” in Citizenship: Pushing the Boundaries, ed. Pnina Werbner and Nira Yuval-Davis, special issue of Feminist Review 57 (1997): 29–33.Google Scholar

37. Brubaker, Rogers, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), x.Google Scholar

38. For histories of Staatsangehörigkeit in Germany, see Fahrmeir, Andreas K., “Nineteenth-Century German Citizenships: A Reconsideration,” The Historical Journal 40, no. 3 (1997): 721–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mommsen, Wolfgang J., “Nationalität im Zeichen offensiver Weltpolitik: Das Reichs- und Staats-angehörigkeitsgesetz des Deutschen Reiches vom 22. Juni 1913,” in Nation und Gesellschaft in Deutschland: Historische Essays, ed. Hettling, Manfred and Nolte, Paul, (Munich, 1998), 128–41Google Scholar; and Gosewinkel, Dieter, “Die Staatsangehörigkeit als Institution des Nationalstaats: Zur Entstehung des Reichs- und Staatsangehörigkeitsgesetzes von 1913,” in Offene Staatlichkeit: Festschrift für Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. Grawert, Rolf et al. (Berlin, 1995), 359–78.Google Scholar

39. Brubaker, , Citizenship and Nationhood, 114–15Google Scholar. Also see Brubaker's essay, “Homeland Nationalism in Weimar Germany and ‘Weimar Russia’,” in idem, Nationalism Refrained: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge, 1996), 107–47Google Scholar. See Lora Wildenthal's persuasive critique of Brubaker's model of citizenship: “Race, Gender, and Citizenship in the German Colonial Empire,” in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. Cooper, Frederick and Stoler, Ann L. (Berkeley, 1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

40. See, for example, the discussion of Marshall's schema in Turner, Bryan, ed., Citizenship and Social Theory (London, 1993).Google Scholar

41. Marshall, T.H., “Citizenship and Social Class,” in Marshall, and Bottomore, Tom, Citizenship and Social Class (London, 1992)Google Scholar. Also see Walby, Sylvia, “Is Citizenship Gendered,” Sociology 28, no. 2 (05 1994): 379–95.Google Scholar

42. See, for example, Gordon, Linda, ed. Women, the State and Welfare (Madison, 1990)Google Scholar, Introduction, 18; Ong, Aihwa, “Cultural Citizenship as Subject Making: Immigrants Negotiate Racial and Cultural Boundaries in the United States,” in Race, Identity, and Citizenship: A Reader, ed. Torres, Rodolfo D. et al. (Oxford, 1999), 263Google Scholar; Lister, Ruth, Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives (New York, 1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

43. MacKinnon, Catherine, Toward a Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, 1989)Google Scholar; Elstain, Jean Bethke, Public Man, Private Woman (Princeton, 1981)Google Scholar; Pateman, Carole, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, 1988)Google Scholar; Fraser, Nancy, Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse, and Gender in Contemporary Social Theory (Minneapolis, 1989)Google Scholar; and Young, Iris Marion, “Impartiality and the Civic Public,” in Feminism as Critique, ed. Benhabib, Seyla and Cornell, Drucilla (Minneapolis, 1987)Google Scholar and Young, Marion, “Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship,” Ethics 99 (01 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mouffe, Chantal, “Feminism, Citizenship and Radical Democratic Politics,” in, Feminists Theorize the Political, ed. Butler, Judith and Scott, Joan W. (New York, 1992).Google Scholar

44. Rose, Sonya O. and I argued this in our essay, “Gender, Citizenship and Subjectivity: Some Historical and Theoretical Considerations,” in Gender, Citizenships and Subjectivities, ed. Canning, Kathleen and Rose, Sonya O. (London, 2002), 1.Google Scholar

45. See, for example, the scholarly controversy on “Women, Work and Citizenship,” International Labor and Working-Class History no. 52 (Fall 1997): 1–71.Google Scholar

46. Koven, Seth and Michel, Sonya, eds., Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993)Google Scholar, especially “Introduction: ‘Mother Worlds’”; Bock, Gisela and Thane, Pat, Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare State (London, 1991)Google Scholar; and Gordon, Linda, ed., Women, the State and Welfare (Madison, 1990)Google Scholar; see especially Gordon's introduction, “The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State.” Also see Pedersen, Susan, Family, Dependence and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France, 1914–1945 (Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar; Skocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, 1992)Google Scholar; and Wikander, Ulla, Kessler-Harris, Alice and Lewis, Jane eds., Protecting Women. Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States and Australia, 1880–1920 (Urbana, 1995).Google Scholar

47. Hong, Young-sun, “The Contradictions of Modernization in the German Welfare State: Gender and the Politics of Welfare Reform in First World War Germany,” Social History 17 (1992): 251–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Also see her pathbreaking book, Welfare, Modernity and the Weimar State, 1919–1933 (Princeton, 1998)Google Scholar. The forum in Central European History appeared in vol. 30, no. 1 (1997): 1–75.Google Scholar

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50. Geoff Eley and Atina Grossmann pose useful questions about the “connections and overlaps between social and political citizenship” in their essay, “Maternalism and Citizenship in Weimar Germany: The Gendered Politics of Welfare,” Central European History 30, no. 1 (1997): 72Google Scholar. Chantal Mouffe makes a similar point in her critique of Jean Elstain and Carole Pateman's critiques of liberal citizenship. See Mouffe, , “Feminism and Radical Politics,” 374–75.Google Scholar

51. Kuwalik, Teresa, The Limits of Social Solidarity: Welfare State and Motherhood in Sweden and Germany 1870–1912, 3Google Scholar; synopsis of English manuscript based on her book, Wohlfahrtsstaat und Mutterschaft: Schweden und Deutschland 1870–1912 (Frankfurt am Main, 1999).Google Scholar

52. Werbner, and Yuval-Davis, , eds., Citizenship: Pushing the Boundaries.Google Scholar See especially, “Introduction: Women and the New Discourse of Citizenship,” 2.Google Scholar See also Erna Appelt, ed., Citizenship, special issue of the Austrian journal L'Homme. Zeitschrift für Feministische Geschichts-wissenschaft 10, no. 1 (1999).Google Scholar

53. Werbner, and Yuval-Davis, , “Women and the New Discourse of Citizenship,” 4.Google Scholar

54. Cott, Nancy, “Marriage and Women's Citizenship in the United States, 1830–1934,” American Historical Review 103, no. 5 (12 1998): 1442CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an innovative and important discussion of women's citizenship that works creatively with Cott's suggestions, see Healy, Maureen, “Becoming Austrian: Women, the State, and Citizenship in World War I,” Central European History 35, no. 1 (2002): 1–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

55. For a fuller discussion of this point, see Canning, and Rose, , “Gender, Citizenship and Subjectivity,” 1–17.Google Scholar

56. Berlant, Lauren, The Queen of America Goes to Washington City: Essays on Sex and Citizenship (Durham, 1997), 10Google Scholar; see also Mouffe, , “Feminism and Radical Politics,” 372–73.Google Scholar

57. Mansfield, Nick, Subjectivity: Theories of the Selffrom Freud to Haraway (New York, 2000), 3–4.Google Scholar

58. Mouffe, , “Feminism, Citizenship and Radical Democratic Politics,” 372, 378–79.Google Scholar

59. For a more general discussion of this topic, see Canning, Kathleen and Rose, Sonya O., “Gender, Citizenship and Subjectivity: Some Theoretical and Historical Considerations,”Google Scholar in Canning, and Rose, , eds., special issue of Gender & History 13, no. 3 (2001): 427–43Google Scholar; Canning, Kathleen, “Embodied Citizenships: Gender in the Aftermath of War and Revolution in Germany, 1917–30” (in progress).Google Scholar