Introduction

The Migration Period and the Early Middle Ages in the Middle Danube Basin belong to the most complex but perhaps least understood periods of European history. In the fifth and sixth centuries AD, the region was inhabited by peoples of the Roman Empire which included Sarmatians of Iranian origin and gradually penetrating Germanic tribes of Lombards, Goths and Gepids (Reference PietaPieta 1987; Reference FóthiFóthi 2000; Reference TejralTejral 2002; Reference BarbieraBarbiera 2005). In addition, Huns played an important role and Avar tribes turned up later in the sixth century (Reference FóthiFóthi 2000). Archaeological finds from the western border of Slovakia indicate that, after the Heruli had been defeated in the early sixth century AD, this area, along with Lower Austria and southern Moravia, was settled by Lombards (Langobards, Longobards) (Reference KolníkKolník 1971).

The total excavation of the cemetery of Bratislava-Rusovce (site located at Pieskový hon) has reopened discussions on the Migration Period populations of the region. With 163 burials it is by far the largest cemetery from this period in Slovakia.

Figure 1.

The Lombard cemetery of Bratislava-Rusovce-Pieskový hon, located 133.8m above sea level, during excavations in 2003. 163 Migration Period graves were excavated.

The cemetery

The Migration Period cemetery in Bratislava-Rusovce-Pieskový hon was revealed in 1996 in an aerial survey conducted by the Archaeological Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Nitra (Blažová et al. 1998). It was excavated in 2002-2003 by Jaroslava Schmidtová of the Bratislava City Museum as part of its salvage archaeology activities (Figure 1). The fully excavated cemetery consists of 166 graves (three graves were of the tenth century AD), the majority of which seems to date to the first two thirds of the sixth century AD (Schmidtová et al. 2003; Schmidtová & Weberová 2004) which places the site into a group of Lombard cemeteries; however, the grave goods also indicate that the cemetery was still in use after AD 568. This opens discussion about the exodus of the Lombards to Italy, a vital historical event of that year, and raises the question of their continued occupation of the Middle Danube region after this date.

Radiocarbon dates

Two burials were selected for radiocarbon dating; they belong, according to archaeological criteria, to the earliest (G026) and the latest (G122) phases of the cemetery respectively. The samples consisted of portions of compact bone from the middle of the right shaft of the femur. The dating was carried out by Beta Analytic Inc., University Branch, in Miami, Florida, (USA).

The sample from G026 gave a result of 1450±40 BP (conventional radiocarbon age 1540±40 BP, 13C/12C = - 19.4‰) (Beta-212571). The calibrated date range is 450-570 cal AD (1 standard deviation) and 420-620 cal AD (2 standard deviations).

The sample from G122 gave a result 1450±40 BP (conventional radiocarbon age 1550±40 BP, 13C/12C = - 18.9‰) (Beta-212572). The calibrated date range spans from 440 to 560 cal AD (1 standard deviation) and from 420 to 610 cal AD (2 standard deviations).

The calibrated ranges of both 14C dates are in accordance with the archaeological, fifth-sixth century, dating of the site (Schmidtová et al. 2003; Schmidtová & Weberová 2004) and do not exclude the possibility that the cemetery was used after AD 568.

Figure 2.

Plan of the Lombard cemetery of Bratislava-Rusovce-Pieskový hon drawn by Ing. Arch. Barbora Vorlíčková. The deepest graves (up to 2.6m) were on the eastern edges, the shallowest (0.4-0.6m) on the western limits. Red - scale in metres; green - graves with dogs; blue - graves with horses.

Funerary rites

The graves, which were in rows, were found more densely distributed in the western part of the cemetery than in the eastern part (Figure 2). Of the 166 graves only 26 turned out not to have been robbed. The dark brown matrix preserved in the majority of graves is thought to represent remains of protective wrappings or containers made of organic matter. The skeletons were originally oriented West-East (with head to the West) and lay extended and supine with arms along the body. Only grave G147, different from all other inhumations, contained a body in a crouched position on its left side, with its head to the South-East. The depth and dimensions of the graves were variable. Except in one case, non-pottery grave goods were located in the area between the waist and the head, while ceramics were placed as a rule by the feet of the deceased.

Apart from single inhumations, which prevailed, eight double graves were recorded, as well as three graves with three individuals and a single burial with four individuals. It is suggested (see below) that these multiple burials are the result of grave robbing, or grave re-opening. Twelve graves were found empty and in one case a single tooth was recovered. Besides humans, some graves contained dogs and horses, either in separate graves or in the graves of humans. The disturbed grave G47, lacking human remains, contained the skeletons of three dogs. However, it is not clear whether the burial was robbed, or whether there never was a human buried. Grave G122 with a male burial and four dogs was exceptional (Figure 3). Grave G116 was the only burial of a male buried together with a horse. Another six burials of horses were found in separate graves always located to the East of the nearest human burial. The burial of humans and animals together is interpreted as indicating the high social status of the deceased.

Grave G140 was completely robbed. It was extremely large (3.5 x 1.6m) and with corner posts. It is considered a principal burial. Two other burials were associated with it: a flexed inhumation on its left side (G147 already mentioned above), perhaps a slave, and a horse burial (G146).

The graves were robbed either by digging shafts into them or more often by removing the entire grave fill. The evidence from displaced but articulated body parts (e.g. upper limbs) suggests that grave robbing took place not long after interment. It may be that a few graves were re-opened or looted at one time, as three skulls in grave G15 suggest. Interestingly, in most double graves one of the skeletons was left undisturbed, without any signs of secondary burial.

Figure 3.

The exceptional grave G122 with a robust adult male buried with four dogs. Two dogs were found on a ledge near the northern edge of the grave, a third along the left side of the skeleton, and the fourth on top of the trunk of the deceased.

Figure 4.

A gilded silver sword suspension belt mount (56 x 22mm) from the high ranking male grave G122.

Figure 5.

Brooches (a-d); pendants (e, g, h) and necklace (f).

Grave goods

Despite robbing, many burials contained numerous grave goods. Most frequent were jewels and objects of personal adornments, while pottery vessels, weapons and horse equipment were less frequent (Figures 4 & 5). An exceptional find is a golden pendant with a zodiac symbol. The range of grave goods - including buckles made of precious metals, mounts, brooches and other objects, Roman coins, weapons, iron items, bone combs, marine shells, etc. - represent parts of garments, personal ornaments, weaponry and toiletry instruments. The artefacts would indicate that the cemetery belongs to Germanic Lombards but with some Suebi elements present too (Schmidtová et al. 2003; Schmidtová & Weberová 2004).

Palaeodemography

Altogether, 160 individuals (73 juveniles and 87 adults) could be identified. Among the adults, 33 persons were identified as males, 43 as females, while the sex of 11 individuals could not be ascertained.

The juveniles consists of five infants (between 0 and 1 year), 28 infants between 1 and 4 years old, 26 children between 5 and 9, 10 children between 10 and 14, and four adolescents (between 15 and 19).

Figure 6.

Mortality profiles of individuals from the Lombard cemetery of Bratislava-Rusovce-Pieskový hon compared to Reference LedermannLedermann's (1969) data.

Amongst the adults, 21 individuals (15 females, 6 males) belong to the younger adult category (20-29 years of age), 52 individuals (23 females, 24 males, 5 unidentified) to the older adult category (30-59 years), and 4 individuals (2 males and 2 females) to the elderly category (over 60 years). The age of 10 individuals (3 females, 1 male, 6 unidentified) could not be estimated.

When comparing the age distribution of the Rusovce series with the mortality curves of archaic populations according to Reference LedermannLedermann (1969), with life expectancy at birth ranges from 25 to 35 years [e⁰(o) = 25-35 years (q ± 2SE)], some anomalies can be observed (Figure 6).

As in most archaeological populations (Reference ChamberlainChamberlain 2006), the life expectancy at birth is very low. But the values of the mortality quotient in the age categories of 5-9 and 10-14 years at age of death are much higher. The values of life expectancy in 1-4 years-old children could be regarded as close to the theoretical model. However, the normal mortality consistent with the reference data could be found only amongst adolescents (15-19 years). Surprisingly, amongst the adults there are values that are too low in the age category of 30-59 years.

The masculinity index (MAS = 767) is very low; its value is clearly influenced by the high number of young females (20-29 years), which is almost the triple of the number of males in the same age category. This disproportion could be ascribed to several causes: higher mortality of young adult females during pregnancy and childbirth, postpartum complications, and/or the absence of similarly aged males among the inhumed individuals.

Summary

Bratislava-Rusovce-Pieskovy hon is the largest Migration Period (fifth and sixth century AD) cemetery in Slovakia. It is assignable to a group of Middle Danubian Lombard cemeteries. Archaeologically and chronologically it is possible that the site was still in use after AD 568. A wide range of artefacts (more than 1000), including perishable materials (textile fragments) together with human and animal remains, provide exceptional material not only for further archaeological studies but also for detailed analyses of the palaeodemography, anthropology and palaeopathology of the local population.