from Part I - The Rise of Commercialized Leisure
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 May 2026
World’s fairs or international expositions occurred regularly in the United States between 1876 and 1916. These seasonal spectacles exhibited American national progress, technological development, and industrialization. Women and non-Whites, however, were relegated to subordinate roles, although their opposition and protests are equally part of the story of this period’s fairs. The fairs also generally consigned entertainment to specific zones. The expositions of this period – especially the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, the 1893 Chicago World’s Columbian Exposition, the 1901 Buffalo Pan-American Exposition, the 1904 St. Louis Louisiana Purchase Exposition, the 1915–1916 San Francisco Panama–Pacific Exposition, and the 1915–1916 San Diego Panama–California Exposition – attracted millions of tourists while photos, postcards, and other souvenirs informed millions more about them. They were international stages that wove popular culture into ideological displays about American empire and technological progress and were originators for several types of twentieth-century popular culture.
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