Introduction
Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) are used in a variety of settings with the majority serving a role as pets or models for laboratory research (Fitria et al. Reference Fitria, Wijayanti, Arisuryanti and Salasia2022). However, in South American countries, guinea pigs are produced as a food source (Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo Reference Dunnum and Salazar-Bravo2010) and have been raised and consumed in the Andean region since as early as the 15th century. The guinea pig represents an honoured animal in Andean communities, as these animals not only serve as a primary food source but also have a profound spiritual value to the community (Morales Reference Morales1994).
Producers have an ethical obligation to optimise welfare by eliminating experiences that result in negative affective states for guinea pigs. This focus on animal welfare is not only beneficial to the animal but can also have a significant impact on meat quality, safety and yield (Paranhos da Costa et al. Reference Paranhos da Costa, Huertas, Gallo and Dalla Costa2012). In turn, advancing guinea pig welfare on-farm will not only improve the welfare and performance of the animal itself, but will continue to help maintain a strong social licence and trust between guinea pig producers and consumers (Vargas-Bello-Pérez et al. Reference Vargas-Bello-Pérez, Miranda-de la Lama, Teixeira, Enríquez-Hidalgo, Tadich and Lensink2017; Alonso et al. Reference Alonso, González-Montaña and Lomillos2020).
To the authors’ knowledge, there is currently limited peer-reviewed research addressing the welfare of guinea pigs destined for meat production. It is estimated that less than one percent of current animal welfare research in Latin America has focused on this species (Gallo et al. Reference Gallo, Véjar, Galindo, Huertas and Tadich2022). Current literature, to date, has focused primarily on the welfare of guinea pigs as companion (Harrup & Rooney Reference Harrup and Rooney2020; Wills Reference Wills2020), laboratory (Mähler et al. Reference Mähler, Berar, Feinstein, Gallagher, Illgen-Wilcke, Pritchett-Corning and Raspa2014) or zoo animals (Powell et al. Reference Powell, Kozlowski, Clark, Seyfried, Baskir and Franklin2020). Therefore, this scoping review aims to provide an overview of meat guinea pig production and welfare categorised generally within the framework of the Five Domains (Mellor et al. Reference Mellor, Beausoleil, Littlewood, McLean, McGreevy, Jones and Wilkins2020) and highlights future opportunities for animal welfare advancement in guinea pig production systems.
Industry overview
Current production statistics
Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and Colombia are the biggest producers and consumers of guinea pig meat. In 2021, it was estimated that Peru produced over 25 million guinea pigs with a local consumption around 22,000 tons (Ministerio de Desarrollo Agrario y Riego 2023). The Ecuadorian Ministry of Agriculture (2019) reported that at least 21 million guinea pigs were consumed in the country, although no information was provided regarding how this number was estimated. This estimate places Ecuador as the second largest producer in Latin America.
On the other hand, Bolivia and Colombia are considered smaller but still relevant producers of guinea pig meat, with both countries estimated to have inventories of at least 6 million and 2.8 million guinea pigs, respectively (Forero et al. Reference Forero, Patiño, Carlosama and Portillo2023; Pinchao-Pinchao et al. Reference Pinchao-Pinchao, Serna-Cock, Osorio-Mora and Tirado2024). However, current information on true inventory numbers is lacking at present and further work is needed to quantify guinea pig production across countries.
Production systems
Guinea pig meat production can be categorised into three production types: family owned and operated (family-type), family owned and commercially operated (family-commercial) and commercial owned and operated (commercial-type). Family-type production systems are the most common in the Andes and management and care of animals is the primary responsibility of women in rural communities (Lammers et al. Reference Lammers, Carlson, Zdorkowski and Honeyman2009; Sánchez-Macías et al. Reference Sánchez-Macías, Barba-Maggi, Morales-dela Nuez and Palmay-Paredes2018).
Record-keeping is a crucial aspect of any production system, regardless of its size. However, there is a noticeable lack of peer-reviewed studies specifically addressing record-keeping practices in guinea pig meat production in the scientific literature. Only a local study supported by the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INIAP) was found, which reported that 88% of the interviewed guinea pig producers in Ecuador do not maintain written records of production parameters (Camacho & Patiño Reference Camacho and Patiño2022).
This lack of documentation may pose challenges for safeguarding animal welfare if veterinarians and producers are unable to effectively track and monitor population health and/or disease risk. Record-keeping has been recognised as an important management tool for improving daily farm operations (Mwanga et al. Reference Mwanga, Mbega, Yonah and Chagunda2020) and can be easily trained via workshops and outreach targeted for producers (Tang Dalsgaard et al. Reference Tang Dalsgaard, Thi Minh, Ngan Giang and Christian Riise2005). However, long-term behavioural change is needed to ensure this activity is maintained (Tham-Agyekum et al. Reference Tham-Agyekum, Appiah and Nimoh2010).
Breeding and genetic selection
There is a debate in the literature regarding whether guinea pigs originated from Cavia tschudii or Cavia aperea. More recent genomic studies have suggested that guinea pigs likely originated from C. tschudii, which was later domesticated into the pre-Columbian species C. porcellus, commonly known as ‘Criollo’, a breed still widely used for meat production today (Spotorno et al. Reference Spotorno, Marín, Manríquez, Valladares, Rico and Rivas2006; Walker et al. Reference Walker, Soto and Spotorno2014; Kaiser et al. Reference QCKaiser, Hennessy and Sachser2015). Guinea pigs exhibit early reproductive maturity, with females reaching sexual maturity at about one month of age, having a gestation period of 63–72 days, and producing litters of 1–7 pups, while males reach sexual maturity at 2–3 months of age (Kaiser et al. Reference Kaiser, Krüger, Sachser, Golledge and Richardson2024).
Genetic selection programmes initiated in the 1970s by the Peruvian Institute for Agriculture Innovation (INIAA) began selecting more commercially relevant breeds from the ‘Criollo’ as a means of providing a solution for food-insecure communities within the Andean region (Chauca Reference Chauca1995). These breeds are larger and heavier, resulting in a more efficient meat yield per animal (Lammers et al. Reference Lammers, Carlson, Zdorkowski and Honeyman2009; Sánchez-Macías et al. Reference Sánchez-Macías, Barba-Maggi, Morales-dela Nuez and Palmay-Paredes2018). The three main breeds used today are the Perú, Andina, and Inti breeds (Figure 1; Chauca Reference Chauca Francia2007).
Common guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) breeds used for meat production showing (A) the Peru breed, characterised by its bi- or tri-colour pattern coat composed primarily of orange and white, (B) the Andina breed characterised by a full body white coat and (C) the Inti breed characterised by a full body golden or yellow coat.
Behavioural interactions
In the wild, rodents of the genus Cavia live in groups of 5–10 animals and have a dominant male guinea pig within the group (Hargaden & Singer Reference Hargaden and Singer2012). In contrast to other members of the rodent family (i.e. mice and rats), guinea pigs are diurnal (Sirois Reference Sirois2005). Domestic guinea pigs share many common behavioural features with their wild counterparts (C. aperea) but differ in social and bonding aspects and do not have a strong motivation to explore their surrounding environment (Kaiser et al. Reference QCKaiser, Hennessy and Sachser2015). Guinea pigs exhibit thigmotactic behaviour, a trait developed from their ancestral habit of residing in dense undergrowth adjacent to open foraging areas to reduce predation risk, which highlights the biological importance of environmental enrichment that provides refuge or cover for this species (Asher et al. Reference Asher, De Oliveira and Sachser2004; Adrian & Sachser Reference Adrian and Sachser2011; Byrd et al. Reference Byrd, Winnicker and Gaskill2016).
As a small prey species, guinea pigs are predisposed to stress associated with novel or fearful situations (McBride Reference McBride2017). In response to stress, guinea pigs tend to experience tonic immobility, an innate response of profound inactivity and relative lack of responsiveness to the environment, which is also known as reflex immobility, animal hypnosis, ‘playing dead’, or fear paralysis (da Silva & Menescal-de-Oliveira Reference da Silva and Menescal-de-Oliveira2006).
Tonic immobility can be elicited in many fearful situations or by strong tactile stimuli, which include inappropriate handling or excessive noise in the environment. This stress response can be reduced by training caretakers on proper handling, restraint techniques and using slow, quiet behaviour when working with and handling guinea pigs (Rocha et al. Reference Rocha, Menescal-de-Oliveira and da Silva2017). Humane handling of production guinea pigs could confer multiple benefits by reducing stress associated with this activity as well as having positive effects on reproductive performance (Klaus et al. Reference Klaus, Schöpper and Huber2013; Sánchez-Macías et al. Reference Sánchez-Macías, Castro and Rivero2016).
In addition to a pronounced stress response, guinea pigs can also display aggressive behaviour among their littermates, although they are less aggressive than their wild counterpart (C. aperea) since newer breeds have been genetically selected to be more docile (Künzl et al. Reference Künzl, Kaiser, Meier and Sachser2003; Brust & Guenther Reference Brust and Guenther2017). Aggression is most commonly observed between sexually mature, intact males (Harper Reference Harper1976; Mínguez Balaguer et al. Reference Mínguez Balaguer, Calvo Capilla, Zeas Delgado and Sánchez Macías2019). In production systems, a harem-type system is employed for reproduction, where a single male is housed with 10 to 12 females (Usca et al. Reference Usca, Flores, Tello and Navarro2022) resulting in few aggressive interactions within the group.
When housed in large populations with multiple males (10–15 or more) during the growing period (45–60 days), animals will form subunits whereby an alpha male dominates over subordinate males (Verzola-Olivio et al. Reference Verzola-Olivio, Ferreira, Frei and Monticelli2021). The management of colonies during adolescence plays a crucial role in shaping social behaviour, as males that have not been raised in large mixed-sex colonies exhibit more aggressive behaviours toward other males due to the lack of social acclimation during this development period (Sachser et al. Reference Sachser, Hennessy and Kaiser2011a). In production settings, mixing males of unknown origin or those without prior colony exposure can lead to frequent agonistic interactions. For welfare reasons, such practices should be avoided.
Stable social groups are not only important for reducing agonistic behaviours but also have a significant impact on reproductive behaviour. Female guinea pigs exposed to social instability during pregnancy give birth to boars characterised by less pronounced masculine traits (behavioural infantilisation) and masculinised female progeny resulting in long-term impacts on reproduction (Sachser et al. Reference Sachser, Hennessy and Kaiser2011b).
Environment
Housing
In family-type production systems, guinea pigs are primarily raised in the kitchen and support the nutritional needs of the family (Avilés et al. Reference Avilés, Martínez, Landi and Delgado2014). Guinea pigs are also commonly kept in small cages near the main building or other parts of the house and will be raised for consumption at around three months. A single-family household will typically care for ten to 15 guinea pigs, thereby enabling the family to control access to and frequency of their most readily available protein source.
Despite being the most common production system in South America, very little is known about the current welfare state of guinea pigs living in family-type production systems. Future efforts need not only to address the welfare of the animal but also that of those raising guinea pigs, given the significant threat of zoonotic diseases associated with such close contact (Vasco et al. Reference Vasco, Graham and Trueba2016; Lowenstein et al. Reference Lowenstein, Vasco, Sarzosa, Salinas, Torres, Perry, Simmens, Trueba, Eisenberg and Graham2020).
In contrast to family-type production, family-commercial and commercial production systems house guinea pigs in either wire-mesh cages elevated from the floor or rectangular bedded pens enclosed with either cement or bricks (Rico & Rivas Reference Rico and Rivas2003). Although there are no science-based guidelines specific to stocking density regarding wire-mesh cages, the standard is 1 m × 1 m and typically hold 10–15 guinea pigs. In solid flooring rectangular pen systems, stocking recommendations are provided and can be found in Table 1.
Stocking densities for rectangular pens in guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) productions
* Summarised from Cáceres et al. (Reference Cáceres, Jiménez, Ara, Huamán and Huamán2004).
For the latter system, bedding is important but has not been thoroughly studied in production settings. In laboratory facilities, bedding (~7 cm depth) is commonly placed in pens as an absorbent material and is composed primarily of small grain straw or rice hulls, that also serves as an enrichment to allow guinea pigs to express species-specific behaviours such as burrowing and hiding (Scharmann Reference Scharmann1991). Guinea pigs will maintain distinct areas for sleeping, eating and defaecating within the bedding area (Lammers et al. Reference Lammers, Carlson, Zdorkowski and Honeyman2009). However, quantity and quality of space should still be explored, emphasising the need for further research into housing conditions in farms to ensure optimal welfare for this species.
A study that compared guinea pigs housed on wire floors and rectangular bedded pens, demonstrated no differences in performance (i.e. growth, feed intake, carcase traits, mortality; Mínguez Balaguer et al. Reference Mínguez Balaguer, Calvo Capilla, Zeas Delgado and Sánchez Macías2019). However, potential welfare issues may still arise due to increased risk of injury or disease due to flooring. Animals housed on wire cages are more likely to develop feet and leg issues, including pressure sores, pododermatitis, and/or fractures (Fawcett Reference Fawcett2011). Studies evaluating welfare challenges associated with wire flooring in other species, such as rabbits and chickens, have demonstrated that wire cages increase pododermatitis risk (Rosell & de la Fuente Reference Rosell and de la Fuente2009), osteoporosis and fractures (Regmi et al. Reference Regmi, Nelson, Steibel, Anderson and Karcher2016).
This evidence suggests that guinea pig welfare may still be compromised when using wire flooring which could lead potentially to development of foot or leg problems, resulting in the negative affective state of pain even in subclinical or mild cases. More work is needed to assess conditions that may lead to compromised welfare, including broken or poorly maintained cages and inappropriately managed litter with high moisture levels.
Handling and transportation
Correct handling and restraint are critical components for ensuring optimal animal welfare in any farm animal. Fear-free handling in laboratory settings can be achieved by gently picking up the animal with both hands, positioning one hand to support the shoulders and chest of the guinea pig while the other hand supports the hindquarters (Figure 2). The guinea pig should be firmly secured against the handler’s body, which is particularly important for pregnant guinea pigs (Kaiser et al. Reference Kaiser, Krüger, Sachser, Golledge and Richardson2024). Animals should never be grabbed or lifted by the skin on the scruff of the neck, as this can cause stress and discomfort (Zimmerman et al. Reference Zimmerman, Moore and Smith2015).
Handling of a medium-sized, meat production guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) showing (A) side view, (B) ¾ view and (C) back view.
Even though this method works well for animals kept as pets or in laboratory settings and can potentially work for small to medium size guinea pigs in production, it is the authors’ experience that the heavy weight of meat guinea pigs (1,000–1,200 g) can make this handling technique challenging. More studies are needed regarding the correct handling of larger animals in production settings.
Currently, there is a lack of studies regarding transportation for guinea pigs in production and no official data were found concerning their transportation in the main producing countries. This is critical, as transportation experience has been shown to induce a marked psychological and physical stress response in guinea pigs and could be compounded if vehicle movement is rough and feed and water withdrawal is prolonged (Fisher et al. Reference Fisher, Colditz, Lee and Ferguson2009).
Transportation in laboratory guinea pigs has been shown to induce an increased cortisol response (Walters et al. Reference Walters, Torres-Urbano, Chichester and Rose2012) and weight loss has also been reported (Stemkens-Sevens et al. Reference Stemkens-Sevens, Van Berkel, De Greeuw, Snoeijer and Kramer2009). For guinea pigs, fasting is generally recommended for solids, liquids or both at 12–14 h prior to slaughter (Kouakou et al. Reference Kouakou, Grongnet, Assidjo, Thys, Marnet, Catheline, Legrand and Kouba2013; Sánchez-Macías et al. 2016), however, no scientific basis was found for these recommendations and further studies are needed.
Nutrition
Feed is the primary expense in guinea pig production, representing 44.2% of total costs (Pascual et al. Reference Pascual, Cruz and Blasco2017). This economic importance has made nutrition one of the most studied aspects of guinea pig rearing and nutrient requirements have been thoroughly described (National Research Council 1995).
Nutrition varies depending on the production type. In family-type systems, females and males are not separated and are fed together with discarded food or vegetables derived from kitchen waste or agricultural waste products (Sánchez-Macías et al. Reference Sánchez-Macías, Barba-Maggi, Morales-dela Nuez and Palmay-Paredes2018). Inconsistent feedings with poor quality feedstuffs may result in aggression associated with resource competition, particularly in intact males and such behaviours may result in injury to the guinea pig, potentially impacting carcase quality (e.g. scarring; Mínguez Balaguer et al. Reference Mínguez Balaguer, Calvo Capilla, Zeas Delgado and Sánchez Macías2019).
On the other hand, family-commercial and commercial-type production systems use formulated concentrate diets along with grass (Chirinos-Peinado et al. Reference Chirinos-Peinado, Castro-Bedriñana, Álvaro-Ordoñez, Quispe-Ramos, García-Olarte and Ríos-Ríos2024). Feed texture is also an important component of guinea pig nutrition as guinea pigs require abrasive feedstuffs to help wear down continuously growing teeth to prevent malocclusion or other teeth problems (Müller et al. Reference Müller, Clauss, Codron, Schulz, Hummel, Kircher and Hatt2015; Witkowska et al. Reference Witkowska, Price, Hughes, Smith, White, Alibhai and Rutland2016). Lastly, guinea pig diets must be supplemented with vitamin C (ascorbic acid) as this species are unable to synthesise it themselves and reduced levels can lead to potential health issues, including scurvy (Witkowska et al. Reference Witkowska, Price, Hughes, Smith, White, Alibhai and Rutland2016).
Health
Human and animal health and welfare are closely interlinked because ensuring that animals are healthy and well cared for provides a safe protein source for people (Schneider & Tarawali Reference Schneider and Tarawali2021). Guinea pigs are susceptible to multiple diseases, including dental and skin problems (Minarikova et al. Reference Minarikova, Hauptman, Jeklova, Knotek and Jekl2015). On-farm, skin diseases caused by external parasites are a persistent problem with previous work demonstrating prevalence to be as high as 67% of the population (Santos et al. Reference Santos, Pinedo and Chávez2020). By controlling the environment, this problem could be solved as guinea pigs raised in crowded and uncontrolled environments have major incidence of ectoparasites, diminished bodyweight and altered haematological parameters (Fitria et al. Reference Fitria, Wijayanti, Arisuryanti and Salasia2022).
Infectious diseases also play a major role in guinea pig production systems and are not just an animal welfare issue but also a potential source of zoonoses for those caring for the animals. The principal disease affecting guinea pig production is Salmonella spp (Sánchez-Macías et al. Reference Sánchez-Macías, Barba-Maggi, Morales-dela Nuez and Palmay-Paredes2018) and is the cause of high mortality and morbidity (Carhuaricra Huaman et al. Reference Carhuaricra Huaman, Luna Espinoza, Rodríguez Cueva, Duran Gonzales, Rosadio Alcántara, Setubal and Maturrano Hernández2022). However, guinea pigs can also serve as subclinical carriers and transmit disease to other animals and humans (Fournier et al. Reference Fournier, Knox, Harris and Newstein2015). Diagnosis and control of this disease is of critical importance for both animal welfare and public health.
One major challenge for the delicate equilibrium that exists between health and welfare is the use of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). AMR has been on the rise globally (Kasimanickam et al. Reference Kasimanickam, Kasimanickam and Kasimanickam2021) and a major contributor to this is the use of antibiotics on animals, not only as a tool for treatment, but also as a means of improving productivity (Bengtsson & Greko Reference Bengtsson and Greko2014).
A qualitative study conducted in Ecuador found producers believe that antibiotics are included in commercial animal feed given to their production animals and that most reacted positively to this idea, due to the belief that it would help their animals grow faster and fight ‘parasites’. In addition to antibiotics in the feed, producers also reported treating animals with additional ‘remedies’ they had in their possession at home (Lowenstein et al. Reference Lowenstein, Waters, Roess, Leibler and Graham2016).
Another study surveying small producers in Peru found knowledge of antimicrobials to be linked to farmers’ educational level, monthly income, knowledge of the animal health authority and farm features (Benavides et al. Reference Benavides, Streicker, Gonzales, Rojas-Paniagua and Shiva2021). Authors noted that farmers reported using antibiotics for many diseases. While most of the treatments were prescribed by veterinarians, 29% reported acquiring the antibiotics from a ‘veterinary store’ and 19% also said that they could have acquired them either from the veterinarian or by the ‘veterinary store’.
This ready access to medications could severely impact the welfare of animals and pose a direct risk for AMR build-up in Latin America and beyond. Even though this survey has shown access to a veterinarian for this species to be feasible in certain provinces of Peru, there has been no research conducted regarding access to veterinary care for small or rural communities in other parts of Peru or in other countries.
Mental state
Pain
Pain is a complex experience with sensory and emotional components, and its recognition in food-producing animals has become increasingly important due to the growing awareness of animal welfare (Reid et al. Reference Reid, Scott, Nolan and Wiseman-Orr2013). Around the world, people are demanding pain management as an important part of safeguarding food animal welfare and maintaining trust with society (Steagall et al. Reference Steagall, Bustamante, Johnson and Turner2021).
Pain has been studied in guinea pigs and behaviours associated with this experience have been described as an indicator for its assessment (Ellen et al. Reference Ellen, Flecknell and Leach2016; Benedetti et al. Reference Benedetti, Pignon, Muffat-es-Jacques, Gilbert and Desquilbet2024). However, the development and validation of studies into pain assessment have been limited to companion (Benedetti et al. Reference Benedetti, Pignon, Muffat-es-Jacques, Gilbert and Desquilbet2024), or laboratory animals (Dunbar et al. Reference Dunbar, David, Aline and Lofgren2016; Ellen et al. Reference Ellen, Flecknell and Leach2016; Oliver et al. Reference Oliver, Athavale, Simon, Kendall, Nemzek and Lofgren2016) and, to date, there have been none published on pain assessment and management in farm animal guinea pig species (Flecknell Reference Flecknell2018; Foley et al. Reference Foley, Kendall and Turner2019). Given these animals are raised for consumption, additional work is needed to ensure pharmaceutical products used for pain control have residue data and withdrawal periods established.
Potential sources of pain include, but are not limited to, failure to treat diseases, traumatic injuries, and administration of improper feed that could lead to bloating and gastrointestinal problems (Harkness et al. Reference Harkness, Murray and Wagner2007). In meat production, the widespread use of castration for reproductive control and aggression management could represent a significant source of pain, particularly in commercial farms where these practices are more common (Mínguez Balaguer et al. Reference Mínguez Balaguer, Calvo Capilla, Zeas Delgado and Sánchez Macías2019).
Slaughter and euthanasia
Humane slaughter is an important component of food animal welfare. Animals that are slaughtered for meat production should experience minimal stress or suffering associated with the experience (Nakyinsige et al. Reference Nakyinsige, Che Man, Aghwan, Zulkifli, Goh, Abu Bakar, Al-Kahtani and Sazili2013). Cervical dislocation is a commonly used method for guinea pig slaughter in both family and commercial productions in Peru due to its perceived practicality (Mota-Rojas et al. Reference Mota-Rojas, Trujillo Ortega, Becerril Herrera, Roldan Santiago, González Lozano and Guerrero Legarreta2012). However, research has shown this practice to be ineffective and that its use should be discouraged since it often results in incomplete insensibility (Limon et al. Reference Limon, Guitian and Gregory2012, Reference Limon, Gonzales-Gustavson and Gibson2016).
In contrast to cervical dislocation, penetrating captive bolt and head electrical stunning are two methods that, when properly implemented, can ensure insensibility and, in the case of penetrating captive bolt, also death (Limon et al. Reference Limon, Gonzales-Gustavson and Gibson2016). Penetrating captive bolt has been found to be a good method for euthanasia that can achieve good welfare standards in research settings (Cohen et al. Reference Cohen, Kwok and Huang2020) and this method could be easily applied on-farm for this purpose too. Electrical stunning, while effective for inducing insensibility, can also impact meat quality by reducing pH levels and decreasing water retention (Mota-Rojas et al. Reference Mota-Rojas, Trujillo Ortega, Becerril Herrera, Roldan Santiago, González Lozano and Guerrero Legarreta2012).
Additionally, the guidelines from the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) highlight the critical importance of animals being stunned immediately following restraint and prior to slaughter or euthanasia. All stunning and euthanasia processes should be followed by proper cutting and bleeding to ensure complete exsanguination. Adhering to these practices is essential for maintaining high standards of animal welfare, health safety, and meat quality (World Organisation for Animal Health 2024).
Other current welfare issues
Preparedness of future generations
Future generations are important for maintaining and improving animal welfare in the region. Countries that produce guinea pigs are members of the WOAH, and this institution has proposed the inclusion of animal welfare in the curriculum of universities for all of its members (Bui & Anh Reference Bui and Anh2013). By 2008, 63% of the veterinary schools in Latin America had at least one animal welfare course, while by 2016 of 100 veterinary schools surveyed in the region the number increased to 98%, however there was no agreement of issues to be addressed or the depth of the course content (Gallo et al. Reference Gallo, Tadich, Huertas, César, Paranhos Da Costa and Broom2010, Reference Gallo, Véjar, Galindo, Huertas and Tadich2022; Tadich et al. Reference Tadich, Molento and Gallo2010).
Attempts at formulating unified content that could form the basis for animal welfare courses in Latin America have been published (Mota-Rojas et al. Reference Mota-Rojas, Orihuela, Strappini-Asteggiano, Nelly Cajiao-Pachón, Agüera-Buendía, Mora-Medina, Ghezzi and Alonso-Spilsbury2018), although these represent a welcome addition to the curriculum, none address the behaviour or welfare of the guinea pig. The importance of this animal to the region (in particular the Andes) makes incorporation of this topic highly important.
One Welfare and food security
One Welfare is a framework that recognises the interconnections between the welfare of people, animals and the environment (Garcia-Pinillos 2018). Guinea pigs have been recognised as an important source of income to reduce food insecurity in socially deprived communities in South America and as a way of empowering rural woman with financial agency, given they serve as the primary caretaker role in guinea pig farms (Lammers et al. Reference Lammers, Carlson, Zdorkowski and Honeyman2009).
Recognising the connection between human and animal welfare, it is essential to consider the producer’s well-being and motivation in driving improvements in animal welfare. Producers often face significant social and economic pressures that can influence how they care for their animals (Garcia-Pinillos & Huertas Canén Reference Garcia-Pinillos and Huertas Canén2023). If we aim to improve the welfare of guinea pigs in meat-producing countries, we must recognise the needs and perspectives of producers whose livelihoods depend on guinea pig production. Supporting governments and producers in developing policies that safeguard animal welfare is essential. However, these policies must be designed with respect for the cultural realities of each region, rather than forcing practices that may have worked elsewhere (Marchant et al. Reference Marchant, Doyle, Hötzel, Iyasere and Sinclair2023; Galindo et al. Reference Galindo, Marchant and Tadich2024).
Animal welfare implications and future directions
As highlighted by this review, many challenges remain regarding the welfare of meat-production guinea pigs. Further scientific studies are needed to address the issues identified in this review and strive for the improvement of guinea pig welfare in the region, as only a few papers were found when trying to address potential welfare issues for these animals in this setting. This may be because most journals use English as their language of choice, while all the guinea pig producing countries in South America have Spanish as their national language, an issue highlighted previously (Diana et al. Reference Diana, Salas, Pereboom, Mendl and Norton2021; Pasteur et al. Reference Pasteur, Diana, Yatcilla, Barnard and Croney2024).
However, most Spanish publications found during the present review were not annexed to journals and consequently did not undergo the peer review process for publication. Keeping in mind that the use of scientific literature has been crucial when identifying critical points for the welfare of farm animals in the past and has guided the progress of education and legislation (Gallo et al. Reference Gallo, Véjar, Galindo, Huertas and Tadich2022), sound scientific evidence should be a top priority for producing countries. Encouraging local governments, research institutions, farmers and animal professionals to aim for the responsible production of this species based on sound scientific evidence and through a multidisciplinary lens such as the One Welfare scheme (Garcia-Pinillos 2018) can provide improvement of local economy of underserved groups of society, well-being of both animals and people and, in general, achieve gains in development for the regions that produce this animal as a protein source.
Acknowledgements
None.
Competing interests
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