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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 December 2025

Edited by
Matthew S. Erie  and
Ching-Fu Lin
Matthew S. Erie
Affiliation:
University of Oxford
Ching-Fu Lin
Affiliation:
National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
Inter-Asian Law , pp. 299 - 312
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2026
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NC
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

abortion, 130
Bangladesh, 140–145
Global North versus Global South, 130–133
rethinking the paradigm, 133–134
India
Roe v Wade, impact of, 134–138
Suchita Srivastava v Chandigarh Administration, 134–138
Nepal
Lakshmi Dhikta v Nepal, 138–140
Roe v Wade, impact of, 138–140 See also reproductive rights.
adultery
Indonesia, 191, 206, 210–213
Agreement on Climate Change, Trade and Sustainability (ACCTS) negotiations, 95
AI governance, 246
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, 244
automated decision-making, 230
China, 232–234
Digital Economy Partnership Agreement, 245
European Union, 242
Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence, 245
informal mutual dialogue, 244–246
Japan, 234–237
Korea, 238–239
regulatory cross-referencing, 242–244
Singapore, 237–238
Taiwan, 240–242
United States, 242
algorithms
healthcare, 231
sentencing decisions, 230
workplace use of, 230 See also AI governance.
alternative dispute resolution (ADR), 18, 57, 292
arbitration, 58 See also arbitration.
decentralization, 76–77
Hong Kong
colonial commerce and trade, 63–64
third-party funding, 65, 68 See also Hong Kong; Hong Kong International Arbitration Centre; Hong Kong Mediation Centre.
international commercial ADR, 57 See also international commercial ADR.
mediation, 57–58 See also mediation.
Singapore
arbitration and mediation, focus on, 59–60
choice of venue, 60–61
colonial commerce and trade, 58–59
neutrality and anti-corruption, 62–63
third-party funding, 61–62, 68 See also Singapore; Singapore International Arbitration Centre; Singapore International Commercial Court; Singapore International Mediation Centre.
analytical framework, 3, 16–18, 289
diversity of effects and consequences, 291
types and methods of interaction, 289–291
types of actors and intermediaries, 291
Apple
horizontal networks, 50
arbitration
Asian International Arbitration Centre
consolidation of arbitration, 64
expedited procedure, 64
Beijing Arbitration Commission, 77
China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission, 64
consolidation of arbitration, 64, 68
Hong Kong, 64
third-party funding, 65 See also Hong Kong International Arbitration Centre.
Hong Kong--Singapore rivalry, 67–69
interactive arbitration, 72
legal convergence, 70–74
Singapore
Arbitration-Mediation-Arbitration procedure, 59
third-party funding, 61–62 See also Singapore International Arbitration Centre. See also UN Commission on International Trade Law.
artificial intelligence. See AI governance
ASEAN Charter, 89
ASEAN Comprehensive Investment Agreement (ACIA), 89–91
RCEP adoption of ACIA rules, 92
ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), 81
AEC Blueprint 2025, 89
ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services (AFAS), 90
ASEAN Free Trade Area, 85
ASEAN Plus One free trade agreements, 81, 85, 89, 91, 93–94
ASEAN Plus Six framework, 83, 85
ASEAN Plus Three framework, 83, 85
ASEAN Smart Cities Network (ASCN), 259, 261
ASEAN Smart City Planning Guidebook, 260
ASEAN Trade in Services Agreement (ATISA), 90
ASEAN way concept, 83, 88–89, 171
legalization of ASEAN way, 81, 88–91, 96
pragmatic incrementalism, 90–91, 96
Asia as a concept, 7
Asian Academy of International Law, 14
Asian Domain Name Dispute Resolution Centre (ADNDRC), 64, 68, 76
Asian Infrastructure and Investment Bank, 176
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, 4
Asian International Arbitration Centre (AIAC)
consolidation of arbitration, 64
expedited procedure, 64
Asian Law and Society Association, 14
Asian Society of International Law, 14
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 85
inter-Asian AI governance dialogue, 244
Non-Binding Investment Principles, 85
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 19, 80
growing influence, 80–82
smart city projects, 248, 255–256
cooperation with Japan, 256–260
Japan’s influence, 260–263
Australia
ASEAN initiatives, 85
robo-debt program, 230
Singapore-Australia Green Economy Agreement, 95
autochthonous democratic law, 112, 171, 294
automated decision-making, 230
rule of law deficit, 230 See also AI governance.
Bahrain International Commercial Court (BICC), 71
balancing rights, 134, 208
ASEAN Comprehensive Investment Agreement, 90
COVID-19 pandemic, 150
ERP Doctrine, 121, 125
judicial discretion, 164
religious freedom, 118
Bangladesh
reproductive rights
criminal prohibition on abortion, 141–142
criminalization of abortion, 140–141
freedom of choice and privacy, 141–142
sex equality argument, 142–145
supply chains
horizontal networks, 51
Basic Law of the Hong Kong SAR, 266–267
Article 23, 276–279
autonomy commitments, 268
commitment to restraint, 268–270
NPC Standing Committee, 267
five formal interpretations, 272–276
powers to amend, 269–271
basic structure doctrine
India, 99, 101, 108, 113
Malaysia, 112
Indira Nehru Gandhi v Raj Narain, 106–110
Pakistan, 110–111 See also self-empowerment of courts; unconstitutional constitutional amendments.
Beijing Arbitration Commission, 77
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), 4, 14, 63, 80, 92, 176
smart city projects, 261
smart technologies, 254
“win-win”, 171
bilateral digital economy agreements, 95
bilateral investment treaties (BITs), 84–85, 87, 91
Bretton Woods system, 83–84
Buddhism, 14, 294
ERP in Sri Lanka, 121–122, 125–128
Cambodia
constitutional amendment, 179
horizontal networks, 50
mobility of Chinese Law, 177–180
representative politics, 179–180
Canadian Supreme Court, influence of, 109, 131
causal relationships, 180, 294
champerty doctrine, 61, 65, 73
child marriage, 116, 213
China
AI governance, 232–234
board structures, 32
company law, 173
coordinated strikes by supply chain workers, 54–56
criminal law, 173
data governance law, 182
democracy (minzhu), 190
Deng Xiaoping’s ‘Open Door’ policy, 46
foreign investment, 87
good-telling the story of Chinese rule of law (jianghao Zhongguo fazhi gushi), 174
Hong Kong, relationship with, 265–267, 292
courts, 282–284
Legislative Council, 282
selection of Chief Executives, 281
horizontal networks, 50
independent directors, 32
regulatory fragmentation, 52–54
rule of law (fazhi gushi), 190
smart cities, 253–255
social credit system, 230
special economic zones, treaty ports as, 46
tensions between the US and China, 4
transnational suppliers, 45
Pou Chen subsidiary (Vietnam), 49
China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission (CIETAC), 64, 76
China--ASEAN smart city cooperation, 261
Chinese law in Inter-Asia, 169–172, 187–190
Cambodia, 177–180, 188
comparative law theories, impact on, 175–177
growing influence, 173–175
Uzbekistan, 180–182, 188
Vietnam, 183–186, 188
choice of law, 2, 5
Christianity, 14, 114, 122, 124, 202
citizen--state relations
dynamic equilibrium, 115–117
civil law jurisdictions, 6, 290, 293
Cambodia, 188
derivative action mechanisms, 33
European civil law, 2, 4, 173, 289
Indonesia, 191, 193–194
Japan, 25, 188
mixed courts, 216, 222
third-party funding of legal actions, 73
Vietnam, 189
cohabitation
Indonesia, 203, 206, 211–212
collaborative approach of Inter-Asian Law, 289–290
common law jurisdictions, 293
champerty doctrine, 61, 65, 73
derivative actions, 33
maintenance doctrine, 61, 65, 73
third-party funding, 61, 65, 73
trial by jury, 216
company towns model, 18, 40, 56
Asian supply chain cities, 44
horizontal networks, 50–51
special economic zones, 46–47
special towns, 47–50
transnational suppliers, 44–46
capitalist efficiency and labor management, as, 42
emergence, 41–43
expansive corporate control order, as, 41
legal entrepôts concept, 51–52
physical expressions of economic enterprise, as, 41
Western decline, 43–44 See also supply chain cities.
competitive approach of Inter-Asian Law, 290–291
compliance with international norms, 194, 237
signaling through corporate governance mechanisms, 36, 38, 244
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), 85–88, 90, 92, 94
concentrated ownership structures, 32
Confucianism, 14, 288, 294
consolidation of arbitrations, 60, 64, 68, 70, 75
conspiracy theories
cybersecurity, 186
constitutional comparativism, 19, 100, 108, 113
basic structure doctrine, 107–113
constitutional identity, 111–113
contract, 4, 173, 292
choice of law, 2
Principles of Asian Contract Law, 13
transnational suppliers, 44–46
Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID Convention), 84
ISDS regional reforms, 87–88
corporate governance, 18
Anglo-American influence, 25–26, 31 See also derivative actions; independence of company directors; stewardship codes.
faux convergence theory, 28–31
importance of, 38–39 See also faux convergence theory.
formal and functional convergence distinguished, 29–30, 36–37
signaling function of corporate governance mechanisms, 36, 38
corporate social responsibility
regulatory fragmentation, 53
transnational suppliers, 45
COVID-19 pandemic, 4, 19, 80
compensation lawsuits, 158
conferences, workshops, and seminars, 72
contact tracing, 49, 150, 153, 157, 160–161, 255
democratic accountability, 161–163
democratic governance, 146
earlier lessons
communication and information disclosure, 148–149
export bans on drugs and medical supplies, 149
human rights infringements, 149–152
election lawsuits, 158, 164
elections and electoral process, 155–156
emergency measures, 19, 146, 148, 151, 161, 164
habeas corpus lawsuits, 157, 164
human rights NGOs, 159–161
illiberal democracy and authoritarianism, 146–148
misinformation dissemination lawsuits, 159, 164
national and local government, relations between, 152
South Korea, 152–154
Taiwan, 154–155
smart city projects, 247
smart technologies, 262
vaccine supplies
supply chain cities, 48–50
vaccine-related lawsuits, 157, 164
creeping authoritarianism, 20, 293–294
criminal law
Bangladesh
criminal prohibition on abortion, 140–142
China, 173, 280
Indonesian Criminal Code. See Indonesian Criminal Code
inter-regional legal influences, 20
Critical Race Theory, 6
cross-border contracts
transnational suppliers, 45 See also transnational suppliers.
customary law, 11, 194, 208, 294
faux convergence, 28
customs duties and taxes
special economic zones, 47
cyber governance, 13, 20, 181, 287–289
special economic zones, 183–186 See also data governance.
Daoism, 14
data analytics, development of, 229–232
data collection
COVID-19 pandemic, 148, 151–152, 160
contact tracing, 153, 160
smart cities, 249, 251
data governance, 181
China, 182, 185, 188
Japan
smart city policies, 258 See also cyber governance.
data processing
smart cities, 249, 251
decentralization of ADR, 76–77
decolonization, 3, 6–7, 9
Indonesian Criminal Code, 193–195
dedemocratization, 7, 19, 294
democratic accountability, 161–163
democratic backsliding, 146, 294
Cambodia, 177
COVID-19 and pandemic autocracy, 147–148, 156, 163–164
Hong Kong, 272–276
India, 156
democratic sovereignty, 116
India, 115–117
democratization, 272
Indonesian Criminal Code, 193–194, 199
lay participation, relationship with, 217–219
derivative actions, 25–27, 30–31, 33–34 See also corporate governance.
Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA), 4, 20, 95
inter-Asian AI governance dialogue, 245–246
Digital Silk Road
smart city projects, 254, 261
Dubai, 70–71
international commercial ADR, 70
Dubai International Arbitration Centre (DIAC), 70
due process, 147, 157, 162, 165, 230, 270, 283
ASEAN Comprehensive Investment Agreement, 91
Vietnam International Arbitration Centre, 75
East–West relationships, 15
international commercial ADR, 71
lay participation, 219–221 See also legal transplantation.
emergency arbitration, 70, 74
emergency measures
COVID-19 pandemic, 19, 146, 148, 151, 161, 164
emerging technologies, 20
artificial intelligence, 229–232, 245
empire and colonialism, impact of, 2, 6–8, 169, 189
Chinese imperialism, 175–177, 183
India, 132
international commercial ADR, influence on
Hong Kong, 63–64
Singapore, 58–59
employees
workplace surveillance of, 230
essential religious practices (ERP) doctrine, 115, 128–129
independence of the judiciary, 117
India, 115–116
implementation and determination of essentiality, 119–121
Shirur Mutt case, 117–118
substantive critiques, 119
Malaysia, 122–125
religious freedom, 118
Sri Lanka, 125–128 See also religion--state relations.
Ethiopia
special economic zones, 47
EU Horizon 2020, 252
European Court of Human Rights, influence of, 131
European Union
AI governance, 242
sanction model for FTAs, 95
trade protectionism, 80
expedited procedure, 64, 68, 70
fair and equitable treatment (FET), 91
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, 92
faux convergence theory, 27–31, 292
explanatory power, 38–39
formal and functional convergence distinguished, 29
adaption of governance mechanisms across borders, 30
economic outcomes, 30
functional versus substantive reforms, 30
masking of functional divergence, 29
financial crisis 20084, 25, 35, 83, 85
forced labor
regulatory fragmentation, 53
foreign investment
national treatment, 86–87, 89
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), 93
special economic zones, 47
US Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaties, 84
foreign precedent, 5, 101, 107, 112, 282
Roe v Wade, 130–131
India, impact in, 134–138
Nepal, impact in, 138–140
formal convergence, 29–31, 36
forum shopping, 91
Foxconn, 45, 49
forbidden iPhone city (Longhua, China), 44, 47
horizontal networks, 51
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation (FCN) Treaties, 84
functional convergence, 29–30, 36
G20 Global Smart Cities Alliance, 258
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Doha Round, 85
Kennedy Round, 83–84
Uruguay Round, 84–85
German Constitutional Court, influence of, 131
German law
Chinese criminal law, impact on, 173
lay participation
South Korea, influences on, 220
Global Cross-Border Privacy Rules Declaration, 245
Global Development Initiative, 4, 176
Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI)
inter-Asian AI governance dialogue, 245
Global Security Initiative, 176
global supply chains, 18, 40, 44–45, 50, 52, 54, 80, 291
horizontal networks, 50–51
transnational suppliers, 50–51 See also transnational suppliers.
Goertek
horizontal networks, 51
harmonization across Asian jurisdictions, 5, 10, 13, 17, 27, 292
AI standardization, 233–234
ASEAN Comprehensive Investment Agreement, 89
ASEAN way, 83
Asian Principles of Private International Law, 13
ERP Doctrine, 128
Indonesian Criminal Code, 193
Principles of Asian Contract Law, 13
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), 91–96
relationships with Western jurisdictions, 15
heterogenous and dynamic nature of Asian jurisprudential space, 15
Hong Kong
ADR, 68, 78
adjudication, 64
arbitration, 64
colonial commerce and trade, 63–64
domain name dispute resolution, 64
HKIAC Case Connect, 65
HKIAC Case Digest, 65
mediation, 64
one party, two systems policy, 66–67
Singapore, rivalry with, 67–69
third-party funding, 65–66, 68
board structures, 32
electoral reform, 273–274
disqualification of pro-democracy candidates, 279–281
legal order, China’s influence on, 281
courts, 282–284
Legislative Council, 282
selection of Chief Executives, 281
Mainland China, relationship with, 265–267, 292
interpretations of the Basic Law, 272–276
law making, 267–272
National Security Law, impact of, 66, 68, 78, 270–271, 275–281
Provisional Legislative Council, 272
reversion to China, 265
special economic zones, 46
stewardship, 36
Hong Kong International Arbitration Centre (HKIAC), 57
consolidation of arbitration, 64, 68
expedited procedure, 64, 68
HKIAC Case Connect, 65, 68
HKIAC Case Digest, 64–65, 68
Hong Kong Mediation Centre (HKMC), 64, 68
House of Lords/Supreme Court (UK), 131
hybrid legal systems, 7
third-party funding, 73
illiberal democracy, 19, 146, 266, 294
COVID-19, impact of, 146–147, 163, 165
Hong Kong/China relationship, 282, 286
independence of company directors, 26
faux convergence, 28
intra-Asia jurisdictional differences, 31–33 See also corporate governance.
independence of the judiciary
ERP Doctrine, 117
Malaysia, 106, 109
Pakistan, 104
India
ASEAN initiatives, 85
basic structure doctrine, 99–102, 113 See also basic structure doctrine.
demographics, 121
ERP Doctrine, 115–116
implementation and determination of essentiality, 119–121
Shirur Mutt case, 117–118
substantive critiques, 119 See also essential religious practices doctrine.
horizontal networks, 51
independence, 121
international commercial ADR, 70, 72
reproductive rights
Suchita Srivastava v Chandigarh Administration, 134–138
self-empowerment of courts
judicial rhetoric, 108
smart cities, 253
unconstitutional constitutional amendments doctrine, 99
India’s Centre for Advanced Mediation Practice (CAMP), 71
Indian International Arbitration and Mediation Centre, 70
Indonesia
Australian influence, 209
criminal law, 191 See also Indonesian Criminal Code.
horizontal networks, 50
independence, 191, 194
investor-state dispute settlement, 87
Iranian influence, 196
Islamic influence on state, 202–206
Saudi influence, 196
Singapore, relationship with, 209
smart cities, 253
supply chains
horizontal networks, 51
Indonesian Criminal Code, 195
decolonization, 193–195
democratization, 193–194
Dutch influence, 193–194
harmonization, 193
recodification, 207–209
reform, 197–199
adultery, 210–211
cohabitation, 211–212
living law, 206–209
morality, 199–206, 212–213
Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity, 82
infrastructure and utilities
company towns model, 47, 50
smart cities, 249, 256–258, 262
special economic zones, 184
institutional co-learning and legal transplant, 19, 174
international commercial ADR, 72 See also legal transplantation.
institutional optimality among dispute resolution venues, 14
institutionalization of power, 3
interactive arbitration, 72
Inter-African law, 21, 289, 295
Inter-Asia concept, 3, 8–10
Inter-Asian law concept, 10–15, 288–289
Inter-Asian law’s emergence as a field of comparative and international law, 3–5, 10–13
adaptation and interpretation throughout Asian jurisdictions, 14
economic performances of Asian economies, 13
harmonization projects, 13
Inter-European law, 21, 289, 295
Inter-Latinx law, 21, 289, 295–296
International Arbitration Act 2002 (Singapore), 59
international commercial ADR
alternative dispute resolution, 57
arbitration and mediation rules, 70–72
interactive East-West relationships, 71
journals and publications, 72
legal convergence
arbitration and mediation rules, 70–72
conferences, seminars, and workshops, 72
domestic arbitration law, 72–74
Singapore’s influence on Vietnam, 74–76
Vietnam, development and influences on, 74–76
International Criminal Court (ICC), 64, 173
inter-regional legal influences, 20
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 80–82
China--Cambodia, 177–180
China--Uzbekistan, 180–182
China--Vietnam, 183–186
Chinese and Taiwanese influence
Ethiopia, 47
Vietnam, 47
civil society organizations
Singapore, 160
South Korea, 160
Taiwan, 159
corporate governance, 38–39
Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA), 245–246
India--Bangladesh, 140–145
India--Malaysia, 122–125
Indian Supreme Court’s influence, 108–113
ERP Doctrine, 115, 117–118
India--Nepal, 134–140
India--Sri Lanka, 125–128
Indonesia--Saudi Arabia, 208–209
Indonesian Criminal Code, 191–192, 195
international commercial ADR
Singapore’s influence on Vietnam, 74–76
Japan’s influence
lay participation reform, 219–221, 223–225
smart cities in ASEAN states, 258–263
lay participation
Japan, 220
South Korea, 219
Taiwan, 220–221
intra-regional dependence. See Association of Southeast Asian Nations
investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS), 82, 86
BITs, 84–85, 87, 91
regional reforms, 87–88
regulatory chill, 88
Iran
lay participation, 216
mixed courts, 216
Shi’a minority in Indonesia, support for, 196
Islamic law, 14, 191
adultery, 206
Indonesia, 192, 194–197, 200
Islamic influence of state, 202–206
LGBT relationships, 205
Malaysia, 107
ERP in Malaysia, 123–125
sex outside marriage, 205
Japan
AI governance, 234–237
board structures, 32
derivative actions, 34, 38
independent directors, 32
international commercial ADR, 71–73
lay participation, 217
global influences, 220
mixed courts, 222
Taiwan, influences on, 221
mixed court system Saiban-in seido, 218, 220–221
introduction and monitoring, 223
smart city projects
data governance concerns, 258
Smart City Guidebook, 257
stewardship, 35, 39
strategic special zones as smart cities, 250
trial by jury, 218
implementation and monitoring, 223
Japan Commercial Arbitration Association (JCAA), 71, 77
journal, 72
Japan International Mediation Centre (JIMC), 71
Japan–ASEAN smart city cooperation, 248, 258–260
joinder provisions in arbitration, 70
judicial appointments
Hong Kong, 66
Pakistan, 102–104
District Bar Association v Pakistan (Rawalpindi), 103–104
judicial deference
COVID-19 pandemic
Singapore, 147, 164
South Korea, 147, 164
Taiwan, 147, 164
Malaysia, 105, 107
Pakistan, 102
judicial interpretation
Basic Law of the Kong Kong SAR
democratic backsliding, 272–276
fair and equitable treatment (ISDS claims), 91
Islamic law, 192, 196
PRC Law for Hong Kong
Basic Law, 271–276
judicial oversight
COVID-19 pandemic
compensation lawsuits, 158
election lawsuits, 158, 164
habeas corpus lawsuits, 157, 164
human rights NGOs, role of, 159–161
misinformation dissemination lawsuits, 159, 164
vaccine-related lawsuits, 157, 164
judicial review, 19
Hong Kong, 275, 280
India, 109
Malaysia, 107–108
Marbury v Madison, 100, 275, 281
Pakistan, 108, 110
Korea
AI governance, 238–239
derivative actions, 34, 38
international commercial ADR, 70, 72–73
stewardship, 35, 39
Korean Commercial Arbitration Board (KCAB), 70
journal, 72
Laos
foreign investment, 89
ICSID Convention, 91
law and economics, 1
law-made space. See legal entrepôts; special economic zones
lay participation, 217, 225
democratization, relationship with, 217–219
impact of new systems, 223–225
Japan, 217
assessment and monitoring, 223
lay courts, 216
lay magistrates, 216
mixed court with lay judges, 215
professional judges, role of, 221–223
rationale, 214–215
Russia, 217, 224
South Korea, 218
assessment, 225
Taiwan, 218
assessment and monitoring, 224
trial by jury, 216
legal convergence, 10–13
adaptation and interpretation throughout Asian jurisdictions, 14
economic performances of Asian economies, 13
faux convergence theory, 25–27 See also faux convergence theory.
formal convergence, 29–31
functional convergence, 29–30
harmonization projects, 13
international commercial ADR
arbitration and mediation rules, 70–72
conferences, seminars, and workshops, 72
domestic arbitration law, 72–74
Singapore’s influence on Vietnam, 74–76
legal cooperation and harmonization
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
ACIA rules, adoption of, 92–93
commitment to RCEP Secretariat, 94, 96
no ISDS mechanisms, 93–94
Third Regionalism, 91
US–China rivalry, impact of, 92
Third Regionalism, 83, 85–87, 91
investment liberalization, 85–86
ISDS reforms, 87–88
legal development assistance, 2, 174, 189
legal entrepôts, 52
law-made nature, 52
laws and norms, impact on, 52
regulatory fragmentation, 52–54
supply chain solidarity, 54–56
legal history, 1, 169
Bangladeshi, 140
HKSAR, 272–276
India
abortion law, 136
ERP Doctrine, 115–117, 121
Indonesia
Criminal Code, 191–194, 198, 207
international commercial ADR
Hong Kong, 63–64
Singapore, 58–59
Vietnam, 74
Japan
jury trials, 218
Malaysia, 104–107
ERP Doctrine, 121–125
Russia
jury trials, 217
Sri Lanka
ERP Doctrine, 121, 125–128
legal pluralism
Indonesia, 191–192, 194, 197, 212
legal translation concept, 20, 221 See also legal transplantation.
legal transplantation, 292
ADR, 74–76
constitutional amendments, 178–179
ERP Doctrine, 128–129
faux convergence. See faux convergence theory
institutional co-learning, 19, 174
international commercial ADR, 72
lay participation, 221
Japan, 220
South Korea, 219–220
Taiwan, 220–221
religious donations, 19
Islamic law in Indonesia, 191, 200 See also Indonesian Criminal Code.
representative politics, 179–180
transnational IAL networks, 19, 169–171, 179
Li & Fung, 45
living law, 11, 206
Luen Thai, 45
Liz Claiborne facility (Dongguan, China), 47–48
LuxShare
horizontal networks, 51
Macau
special economic zones, 46
machine learning, development of, 229–232 See also AI governance.
maintenance doctrine, 61, 65, 73
Malaysia
basic structure doctrine
Indira Nehru Gandhi v Raj Narain, 106–107
demographics, 121
ERP Doctrine, 122–125
independence, 121
independence of the judiciary, 106
Indonesia, relationship with, 209
judicial deference, 105
removal of judges, 105
self-empowerment of courts
judicial rhetoric, 108–110
separation of powers doctrine, 105–106
unconstitutional constitutional amendments
Semenyih Jaya case, 105–107
market access, 67, 82, 86, 93
marriage
Bangladesh, 141
India
child marriage, 116
Indonesia, 199
adultery, 191, 206, 210–213
child marriage, 213
cohabitation, 211–212
Islamic values, 205–206, 210
maxi-minimalist decisions
Indira Nehru Gandhi v Raj Narain, 106–107
Kesavananda Bharati v Kerala, 100–101
self-empowerment of courts, 101–102, 106
mediation, 57–58, 71–72
Hong Kong, 64 See also Hong Kong Mediation Centre.
Singapore, 59–60
Arbitration-Mediation-Arbitration procedure, 59
Litigation-Mediation-Litigation procedure, 60 See also Singapore International Mediation Centre.
Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), 147
minority shareholders, 32
derivative actions, 33
mixed courts
civil law, 216
Japan, 222
lay participation, 215
Russia, 217
Taiwan, 218, 224
mixed legal systems. See hybrid legal systems
mobility of Chinese Law, 169–172, 177
Cambodia, 177–180
commercial importance, 172
geostrategic importance, 172
symbolic importance, 172
Uzbekistan, 180–182
Vietnam, 183–186
modernization theory, 1
morality
Confucian morality, 288
Indonesia, 212–213
Islamic morality, 191–192, 199–200, 203
pornography, 200–204
sexual violence, 204–206
most-favored nation (MFN) clauses, 89, 91
multinational enterprises
“Big Suppliers”, 44–46
US--China trade war, 86 See also transnational suppliers.
Myanmar
ICSID Convention, 91
national treatment, 86, 89, 92
neocolonialism
China--Hong Kong relationship, 285
Neo-Confucianism, 12, 183
Nepal
reproductive rights
Lakshmi Dhikta v Nepal, 138–140
Netherlands
Indonesian Criminal Code, impact on, 191–192
neutral arbitration seats
Singapore, 62–63
new institutional economics, 1
new international economic order, 19
absolute sovereignty over natural resources, 84
efficiency and large-scale productivity, 44
New Zealand
Agreement on Climate Change, Trade and Sustainability negotiations, 95
ASEAN initiatives, 85
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 84
online dispute resolution, 68, 70
openness, trust, and transparency
AI governance, 238–239
democratic governance
COVID-19 pandemic, 147, 162
smart cities and data governance, 258
Opium Wars (1839-1842, 1856-1860), 46
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
AI governance, 234–237, 240, 244
smart cities concept, 249
Pakistan
judicial appointments, 102–103
District Bar Association v Pakistan (Rawalpindi), 103–104
judicial deference, 102
self-empowerment of courts
judicial rhetoric, 110–111
supply chains
horizontal networks, 51
Pancasila ideology, 195, 197, 205
path dependency, 2, 4–5, 292
Philippines Dispute Resolution Centre, 77
pornography
anti-pornography laws, 201–203
pragmatic incrementalism
ASEAN way concept, 80, 82–83, 88, 90–91, 93–94, 96
preservation of local practices
faux convergence, 28
Principles of Asian Contract Law, 13
privacy
AI governance, 235, 239, 250
Global Cross-Border Privacy Rules Declaration, 245
COVID-19 pandemic, 149, 151
digital tracing apps, 148, 152–153, 159
criminalization of sexual relations, 212–213
employer/employee relationship, 230
reproductive rights, 135, 141–142, 144
smart cities and data governance, 251, 258, 263
private law
alternative dispute resolution. See alternative dispute resolution
company towns. See company towns model
corporate governance. See corporate governance
transnational suppliers. See transnational suppliers
private regulatory functions
transnational suppliers, 45, 52
procedural law, 19, 274, 289, 295
professional judicary
lay participation, relationship with, 221–223
proportionality
COVID-19 measures, 151
recognition and enforcement processes, 67, 69, 75 See also UN Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards.
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), 3, 14, 81–82, 85–86
harmonization of Asia-Pacific legal systems
ACIA rules, adoption of, 92–93
commitment to RCEP Secretariat, 94, 96
exclusion/restriction of foreign investment, 93
ISDS rules, 94
no ISDS mechanisms, 93–94
Third Regionalism, 91
US-China rivalry, impact of, 92
regionalism, 15, 19, 83
First Regionalism, 83–84
Second Regionalism, 84–85
Third Regionalism, 83, 85
investment liberalization, 85–86
ISDS reforms, 87–88
legal cooperation and harmonization, 86–87
regulatory fragmentation, 40
company towns as legal entrepôts, 52–54
corporate social responsibility, 53
forced labor, 53
religion--state relations, 114
secularism, 114, 195, 197 See also essential religious practices doctrine.
religious donations and legal transplant, 19, 191, 200
religious freedom, 107, 112, 289, 293
ERP Doctrine, 114–115, 118, 120–122, 125–128 See also essential religious practices doctrine.
removal of judges
Malaysia, 105
Pakistan, 102
reproductive rights, 19, 130–131
Bangladesh
criminal prohibition on abortion, 141–142
freedom of choice and privacy, 141–142
sex equality argument, 142–145
discrimination, 144
Global North versus Global South, 130–133
India, 134–138
Nepal, 138–140 See also abortion.
Roe v Wade, 130–131, 145
India, impact in, 134–138
Nepal, impact in, 138–140
rule in Foss v Harbottle, 33
rule of law, 2, 109, 146–147, 196, 209, 213
Chinese rule of law (fazhi gushi), 190
COVID-19 pandemic, 161
deficits
automation of government functions, 230
“foreign-related ‘rule of law’“ (shewai fazhi) campaign (China), 173–174, 187, 286
good-telling the story of Chinese rule of law (jianghao Zhongguo fazhi gushi), 174
illiberal democracy, 266, 276, 282
Russia
lay participation, 217
mixed courts, 217
trial by jury, 217
Russian invasion of Ukraine, 80
sacred--secular divide of law, 20
Indonesia, 195
Saudi Arabia
Indonesia/Saudi Arabia relationship, 208–209
Indonesian Criminal Code, 191–192, 195
Sunni in Indonesia, support for, 196
secular law, 14, 114
legal pluralism, relationship with, 195, 197
self-empowerment of courts, 99–100, 113
judicial rhetoric, 107–108
India, 108
Malaysia, 108–110
Pakistan, 110–111
Kesavananda Bharati v Kerala, 100–102, 108–109
maxi-minimalism, 101–102, 106 See also basic structure doctrine; unconstitutional constitutional amendments.
separation of powers doctrine
democratic checks and balances
COVID-19 pandemic, 147
Malaysia, 105–106, 109
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 147
sex equality
reproductive rights, 142–144
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), 4, 176
Uzbekistan, 181
shareholders, 32
controlling shareholders, 32–33
minority shareholders, 32
derivative actions, 33
Shenzhen Court of International Arbitration (SCIA), 71, 77
Singapore
ADR, 57, 78
arbitration and mediation, focus on, 59–60
choice of venue, 60–61
colonial commerce and trade, 58–59
Hong Kong, rivalry with, 67–69
neutrality and anti-corruption, 62–63
third-party funding, 61–62, 68
AI governance, 237–238
board structures, 32
COVID-19 pandemic
democratic accountability, 162
democratic governance, 146
elections, 156
human rights NGOs, 160
SARS outbreak, lessons learnt, 151–152
independent directors, 32, 38
Indonesia, relationship with, 209
Singapore-Australia Green Economy Agreement, 95
smart cities, 255
stewardship, 36
Singapore International Arbitration Centre (SIAC), 57, 59
Arbitration-Mediation-Arbitration procedure, 59
consolidation of arbitration, 64
expedited procedure, 64
journals, 72
model clause, 60
Singapore International Commercial Court (SICC)
Litigation-Mediation-Litigation procedure, 60
model clause, 60
Singapore International Mediation Centre (SIMC), 68
Arbitration-Mediation-Arbitration procedure, 59
Litigation-Mediation-Litigation procedure, 60
Singapore Mediation Centre, 59
Singapore Mediation Convention. See UN Convention on International Settlement Agreements Resulting from Mediation
Singapore-Australia Green Economy Agreement, 95
smart cities, 20, 247
China--ASEAN smart city cooperation, 261
corporate-oriented smart cities, 247
G20 Global Smart Cities Alliance, 258
inter-Asian cooperation, 247–249, 260–263
Japan–ASEAN smart city cooperation, 258–260
privacy and security concerns, 263
problem-oriented smart projects, 251–252
smart city guidelines, 292
soft and hard law, 250–251
state-led initiatives, as, 252–255
systems, as, 249–250
three-layered structure, 249
soft law, 290, 292
Belt and Road Initiative, 14
smart cities, 248, 250–251
sources of law, 2
civil law, 293
common law, 293
complexity, 15, 29, 293
foreign precedent, 282
hybridization and pluralization, 293
Indonesia’s Criminal Code, 191–192 See also Indonesian Criminal Code.
supply chain cities, 18
South Korea
COVID-19 pandemic
democratic accountability, 161–163
democratic governance, 146, 165
elections, 155
human rights NGOs, 160
MERS outbreak, lessons learnt, 148–150
national and local government, relations between, 152–154
democratization, 218
Indonesia, relationship with, 209
lay participation, 218
global influences, 219–220
implementation and monitoring, 225
Japan, infuences on, 220
Taiwan, influences on, 221
trial by jury, advisory nature of, 222
sovereignty, 12–13, 21, 91, 183, 188, 194
absolute sovereignty over natural resources, 84
ASEAN way concept, 88
China--Hong Kong relationship, 269, 293
data governance, 182, 186
democratic governance, 116–117
ERP Doctrine, 118, 120
popular sovereignty, 218
special economic zones, 46–47
administrative procedures, 47
China--Vietnam, 183–186
cyber governance, 183–186
legislation for smart cities, 250
spillover effects, 53, 292
Sri Lanka
demographics, 121
ERP Doctrine, 125–128
independence, 121
stewardship codes, 18, 25–26, 28, 30–31, 35–36, 38
jurisdiction-specific factors, 36
regulatory pressure and compliance, 36 See also corporate governance; faux convergence theory.
subaltern studies, 6
substantive law, 19, 73, 81, 289, 295
supply chain cities, 18, 40, 291 See also company towns model.
supply chains. See global supply chains; transnational suppliers
surveillance and monitoring
COVID-19 pandemic, 149, 153, 255, 262, 270
smart technologies, 262
workplace surveillance of employees, 230
sustainable development, 95, 254
Taiwan
AI governance, 239–242
COVID-19 pandemic
democratic accountability, 161–163
democratic governance, 147, 165
elections, 156
human rights NGOs, 159
national and local government, relations between, 154
SARS outbreak, lessons learnt, 150–151
lay legal decision-making, 214
lay participation, 218
global influences, 220–221
mixed courts, 218
implementation and monitoring, 224
supply chain cities, 49
trial by jury, 218
Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC), 45, 49
Taiwan Strait confrontations, 80
TAL Apparel, 45
horizontal networks, 50
Tesla
coordinated strike against, 54
Thailand
supply chains
horizontal networks, 51
Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL), 6
third-party funding of legal actions, 70, 73
champerty doctrine, 61, 65, 73
Hong Kong, 65, 68
maintenance doctrine, 61, 65, 73
Singapore, 61–62, 68
trade protectionism, 7, 21, 80, 83, 86
transnational suppliers
regulatory fragmentation, 52–54
special economic zones, 46–47
special towns, 47–50
supply chain solidarity, 54–56
transformation of global trade, 44–46
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), 86, 88, 94
transparency, 198, 215
AI governance, 235, 238
ASEAN states, 89–90
COVID-19 pandemic, 147, 161–163
democratic accountability, 161–163
popular sovereignty, 218
smart cities and data governance, 258
trial by jury
common law jurisdictions, 216
Japan, 218, 223
lay participation, 216
Russia, 217
South Korea
advisory nature, 222, 225
Taiwan, 218
Trump administration
withdraw from TPP, 86
Ukraine, Russian invasion of, 80
UN Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), 93
China, 175
investor-state dispute settlement, 82
Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
Singapore, 59, 67, 69
Vietnam, 74
Model Law on Mediation
Vietnam, 75
UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 175
UN Convention on International Settlement Agreements Resulting from Mediation (Singapore Mediation Convention), 3, 62, 69
UN Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York Convention), 59–60, 62, 69, 74
unconstitutional constitutional amendments, 113
India, 99
Malaysia
Semenyih Jaya case, 105–107
Pakistan, 103–104
District Bar Association v Pakistan (Rawalpindi), 110–111 See also basic structure doctrine; self-empowerment of courts.
underage sexual activity, 213 See also child marriage.
Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy (UDRP), 64
United Kingdom
Hong Kong, 269
references to, 109, 220
Stewardship Code (2010), 35
United States
AI governance, 242
Chinese company law, impact on, 173
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaties, 84
independent directors, 31
industrial towns, decline of, 43–44
lay participation
Japan, influences on, 220
South Korea, influences on, 219
Marbury v Madison, 100, 275, 281
sanction model for FTAs, 95
Smart City Challenge, 252
tensions between the US and China, 4
trade protectionism, 80
US-China conflicts, 80
welfare distribution platform, 230
Uzbekistan
mobility of Chinese Law, 180–182
Vietnam
coordinated strikes by supply chain workers, 54–56
foreign investment, 87
horizontal networks, 50
ICSID Convention, 91
international commercial ADR, 74–76
investor-state dispute settlement, 87
mobility of Chinese Law, 183–186
special economic zones, 47
supply chain cities, 49
Vietnam International Arbitration Centre (VIAC), 75
HKIAC, influence of, 76
SIAC, influence of, 75
Vietnam Mediation Centre (VMC), 75
Washington Consensus system, 80–81, 83–84, 86, 90, 92, 96
Western-centric nature of international law, 1–3, 132
declining influence, 81, 293
Washington Consensus system, 81
Westminster model, 112
women’s rights, 19 See also reproductive rights.
workplace
employee surveillance, 230
World Economic Forum
G20 Global Smart Cities Alliance, 258
world systems theory, 1
World Trade Organization (WTO)
China, 175
collapse of appeals mechanism, 80
Yue Yuen, 45
coordinated strikes by supply chain workers, 54–56
horizontal networks, 50
Pou Chen subsidiary (Vietnam), 49
regulatory fragmentation, 52–53 See also China.

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  • Index
  • Edited by Matthew S. Erie, University of Oxford, Ching-Fu Lin, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
  • Book: Inter-Asian Law
  • Online publication: 16 December 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009580632.021
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  • Index
  • Edited by Matthew S. Erie, University of Oxford, Ching-Fu Lin, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
  • Book: Inter-Asian Law
  • Online publication: 16 December 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009580632.021
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  • Index
  • Edited by Matthew S. Erie, University of Oxford, Ching-Fu Lin, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
  • Book: Inter-Asian Law
  • Online publication: 16 December 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009580632.021
Available formats
×