Exposure measures

The ACMS is a cross-sectional survey conducted in Australia in 2021, which collected retrospective self-report data from a nationally representative sample of 8,503 respondents aged 16 years and over (Haslam et al., Reference Haslam, Lawrence, Mathews, Higgins, Hunt, Scott, Dunne, Erskine, Thomas, Finkelhor, Pacella, Meinck and Malacova2023; Mathews et al., Reference Mathews, Pacella, Scott, Finkelhor, Meinck, Higgins, Erskine, Thomas, Lawrence, Haslam, Malacova and Dunne2023b). In ACMS, child maltreatment was assessed using the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ)-R2: Adapted Version (ACMS). This instrument is based on the well-established JVQ-R2, and its adapted form was the product of a careful process of adaptation and validation reported elsewhere (Mathews et al., Reference Mathews, Pacella, Dunne, Scott, Finkelhor, Meinck, Higgins, Erskine, Thomas, Haslam, Tran, Le, Honey, Kellard and Lawrence2021, Reference Mathews, Meinck, Erskine, Tran, Lee, Kellard, Pacella, Scott, Finkelhor and Higgins2023a), with items using more conservative approaches to the nature and chronicity of maltreatment types than many other instruments (Mathews et al., Reference Mathews, Pacella, Dunne, Simunovic and Marston2020, Reference Mathews, Meinck, Erskine, Tran, Lee, Kellard, Pacella, Scott, Finkelhor and Higgins2023a). The instrument employed 16 screener items to measure childhood experiences of all five types of child maltreatment (physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect and exposure to domestic violence), and specific types of each of these, before the age of 18 years. For physical abuse, we used two items assessing moderate and severe abuse. For sexual abuse, we used four items, with one assessing non-contact abuse, and three assessing different types of contact abuse from touching to completed forced intercourse. For emotional abuse, we used three items assessing verbal hostility/denigration, rejection and emotional unavailability. For neglect, we used three items assessing physical/nutritional neglect, environmental neglect and medical neglect. For exposure to domestic violence, we used four items assessing inter-parental physical violence, serious threats of physical violence, damage to property/pets during arguments, and intimidation or control. Follow-up items captured information on the frequency of the particular maltreatment experience. For physical abuse, sexual abuse and exposure to domestic violence, one or more experience of any screener was counted as a case of that maltreatment type. For emotional abuse, and for neglect, only those experiences occurring over a period of at least weeks were counted. Details of frequency/chronicity of each maltreatment type and screeners are provided elsewhere (Mathews et al., Reference Mathews, Pacella, Scott, Finkelhor, Meinck, Higgins, Erskine, Thomas, Lawrence, Haslam, Malacova and Dunne2023b) and exact wording of the maltreatment items is provided in (Mathews et al., Reference Mathews, Meinck, Erskine, Tran, Lee, Kellard, Pacella, Scott, Finkelhor and Higgins2023a) (see Supplementary Material Appendix 1 for definitions and details of how the exposures were assessed and Appendix 2 Table A1 for details of the ACMS study population).

Prevalence of child maltreatment

Weighted estimates of prevalence of child maltreatment in Australia from the ACMS have been previously reported (Mathews et al., Reference Mathews, Pacella, Scott, Finkelhor, Meinck, Higgins, Erskine, Thomas, Lawrence, Haslam, Malacova and Dunne2023b) and are included both as a single exposure and as combinations of multi-type victimisation, with the first age group being 16–19 years and then in 5-year age group categories from 20–24 to 80+ years (Mathews et al., Reference Mathews, Pacella, Scott, Finkelhor, Meinck, Higgins, Erskine, Thomas, Lawrence, Haslam, Malacova and Dunne2023b). In the current study, we derived prevalence for the 32 combinations of the five types of child maltreatment by gender and 5-year age groups. As the ACMS sample of 8,503 participants does not support direct estimation at this level of cross-classification, we used a log-linear model to estimate weighted prevalence (Agresti, Reference Agresti1999). In addition, respondents who identified with a diverse gender (non-binary n = 126) were excluded from this analysis, which focused on women (n = 4,182) and men (n = 4,195) with total n = 8,377. The model was fitted using the CATMOD procedure in SAS Version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., 2013). We modelled the prevalence of the five types of maltreatment and all two-way interactions controlling for age and gender. We adjusted for age, using second order fractional polynomial regression (Royston and Altman, Reference Royston and Altman1994), with the best fitting polynomials being log of age and age squared. The use of log-linear modelling in this context helps smooth out the degree of random error that would exist in direct estimates at this level of disaggregation by applying the constraint of smooth trends by age for each gender using fractional polynomials. Modelled counts and weighted proportions for 32 mutually exclusive patterns of child maltreatment by 5-year age groups and gender are shown in Appendix 3 Table A2.

Relative risks

Child maltreatment is a risk factor associated with health outcomes, and each combination of risk and outcome is referred to as a risk-outcome pair. We included risk–outcome pairs based on sufficient evidence of a causal relationship (Norman et al., Reference Norman, Byambaa, De, Butchart, Scott and Vos2012; Lawrence et al., Reference Lawrence, Hunt, Mathews, Haslam, Malacova, Dunne, Erskine, Higgins, Finkelhor, Pacella, Meinck, Thomas and Scott2023; Scott et al., Reference Scott, Malacova, Mathews, Haslam, Pacella, Higgins, Meinck, Dunne, Finkelhor, Erskine, Lawrence and Thomas2023; Brauer et al., Reference Brauer, Roth, Aravkin, Zheng, Abate, Abate, Abbafati, Abbasgholizadeh, Abbasi, Abbasian, Abbasifard, Abbasi-Kangevari, Abd ElHafeez, Abd-Elsalam, Abdi, Abdollahi, Abdoun, Abdulah, Abdullahi, Abebe, Abedi, Abedi, Abegaz, Abeldaño Zuñiga, Abiodun, Abiso, Aboagye, Abolhassani, Abouzid, Aboye, Abreu, Abualruz, Abubakar, Abu-Gharbieh, Abukhadijah, Aburuz, Abu-Zaid, Adane, Addo, Addolorato, Adedoyin, Adekanmbi, Aden, Adetunji, Adeyeoluwa, Adha, Adibi, Adnani, Adzigbli, Afolabi, Afolabi, Afshin, Afyouni, Afzal, Afzal, Agampodi, Agbozo, Aghamiri, Agodi, Agrawal, Agyemang-Duah, Ahinkorah, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ajami, Akalu, Akara, Akbarialiabad, Akhlaghi, Akinosoglou, Akinyemiju, Akkaif, Akkala, Akombi-Inyang, Al Awaidy, Al Hasan, Alahdab, AL-Ahdal, Alalalmeh, Alalwan, Al-Aly, Alam, Alam, Alanezi, Alanzi, Albakri, AlBataineh, Aldhaleei, Aldridge, Alemayohu, Alemu, Al-Fatly, Al-Gheethi, Al-Habbal, Alhabib, Alhassan, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Alicandro, Alif, Aljunid, Alla, Al-Marwani, Al-Mekhlafi, Almustanyir, Alomari, Alonso, Alqahtani, Alqutaibi, Al-Raddadi, Alrawashdeh, Al-Rifai, Alrousan, Al-Sabah, Alshahrani, Altaany, Altaf, Al-Tawfiq, Altirkawi, Aluh, Alvis-Guzman, Alvis-Zakzuk, Alwafi, Al-Wardat, Al-Worafi, Aly, Aly, Alzoubi, Al-Zyoud, Amaechi, Aman Mohammadi, Amani, Amiri, Amirzade-Iranaq, Ammirati, Amu, Amugsi, Amusa, Ancuceanu, Anderlini, Anderson, Andrade, Andrei, Andrei, Anenberg, Angappan, Angus, Anil, Anil, Anjum, Anoushiravani, Antonazzo, Antony, Antriyandarti, Anuoluwa, Anvari, Anvari, Anwar, Anwar, Anwer, Anyabolo, Anyasodor, Apostol, Arabloo, Arabzadeh Bahri, Arafat, Areda, Aregawi, Aremu, Armocida, Arndt, Ärnlöv, Arooj, Artamonov, Artanti, Aruleba, Arumugam, Asbeutah, Asgary, Asgedom, Ashbaugh, Ashemo, Ashraf, Askarinejad, Assmus, Astell-Burt, Athar, Athari, Atorkey, Atreya, Aujayeb, Ausloos, Avila-Burgos, Awoke, Ayala Quintanilla, Ayatollahi, Ayestas Portugal, Ayuso-Mateos, Azadnajafabad, Azevedo, Azhar, Azizi, Azzam, Backhaus, Badar, Badiye, Bagga, Baghdadi, Bagheri, Bagherieh, Bahrami Taghanaki, Bai, Baig, Baker, Bakkannavar, Balasubramanian, Baltatu, Bam, Bandyopadhyay, Banik, Banik, Banke-Thomas, Bansal, Barchitta, Bardhan, Bardideh, Barker-Collo, Bärnighausen, Barone-Adesi, Barqawi, Barrero, Barrow, Barteit, Basharat, Basiru, Basso, Bastan, Basu, Batchu, Batra, Batra, Baune, Bayati, Bayileyegn, Beaney, Behnoush, Beiranvand, Béjot, Bekele, Belgaumi, Bell, Bell, Bello, Bello, Belo, Beloukas, Bendak, Bennett, Bennitt, Bensenor, Benzian, Beran, Berezvai, Bernabe, Bernstein, Bettencourt, Bhagavathula, Bhala, Bhandari, Bhardwaj, Bhardwaj, Bhaskar, Bhat, Bhat, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhuiyan, Bhutta, Bikbov, Bishai, Bisignano, Biswas, Biswas, Biswas, Bjørge, Boachie, Boakye, Bockarie, Bodolica, Bodunrin, Bogale, Bolla, Boloor, Bonakdar Hashemi, Boppana, Bora Basara, Borhany, Botero Carvajal, Bouaoud, Boufous, Bourne, Boxe, Braithwaite, Brant, Brar, Breitborde, Breitner, Brenner, Briko, Britton, Brown, Browne, Brunoni, Bryazka, Bulamu, Bulto, Buonsenso, Burkart, Burns, Busse, Bustanji, Butt, Butt, Caetano dos Santos, Cagney, Cahuana-Hurtado, Calina, Cámera, Campos, Campos-Nonato, Cao, Cao, Cao, Capodici, Cárdenas, Carr, Carreras, Carrero, Carugno, Carvalho, Carvalho, Castaldelli-Maia, Castañeda-Orjuela, Castelpietra, Catalá-López, Catapano, Cattaruzza, Caye, Cederroth, Cegolon, Cenderadewi, Cercy, Cerin, Chadwick, Chakraborty, Chakraborty, Chakraborty, Chan, Chan, Chandan, Chandika, Chaturvedi, Chen, Chen, Chen, Chen, Chen, Chen, Cheng, Cheng, Cherbuin, Chi, Chichagi, Chimed-Ochir, Chimoriya, Ching, Chirinos-Caceres, Chitheer, Cho, Chong, Chopra, Chowdhury, Christopher, Chu, Chukwu, Chung, Chung, Chutiyami, Cioffi, Cogen, Cohen, Columbus, Conde, Corlateanu, Cortese, Cortesi, Costa, Costanzo, Criqui, Cruz, Cruz-Martins, Culbreth, da Silva, Dadras, Dai, Dai, Daikwo, Dalli, Damiani, D’Amico, D’Anna, Darwesh, Das, Das, Dash, Dashti, Dávila-Cervantes, Davis Weaver, Davitoiu, De la Hoz, de la Torre-Luque, De Leo, Debopadhaya, Degenhardt, Del Bo’, Delgado-Enciso, Delgado-Saborit, Demoze, Denova-Gutiérrez, Dervenis, Dervišević, Desai, Desai, Devanbu, Dewan, Dhali, Dhama, Dhane, Dhimal, Dhimal, Dhingra, Dhulipala, Dhungana, Dias da Silva, Diaz, Diaz, Diaz, Dima, Ding, Dinu, Djalalinia, Do, THP, do Prado, Dodangeh, Dohare, Dokova, Dong, Dongarwar, D’Oria, Dorostkar, Dorsey, Doshi, Doshmangir, Dowou, Driscoll, Dsouza, Dsouza, Dumith, Duncan, Duraes, Duraisamy, Dushpanova, Dzianach, Dziedzic, Ebrahimi, Echieh, Ed-Dra, Edinur, Edvardsson, Edvardsson, Efendi, Eftekharimehrabad, Eini, Ekholuenetale, Ekundayo, El Arab, El Sayed Zaki, El-Dahiyat, Elemam, Elgar, ElGohary, Elhabashy, Elhadi, Elmehrath, Elmeligy, Elshaer, Elsohaby, Emeto, Esfandiari, Eshrati, Eslami, Esmaeili, Estep, Etaee, Fabin, Fagbamigbe, Fagbule, Fahimi, Falzone, Fareed, Farinha, Faris, Faris, Faro, Fasina, Fatehizadeh, Fauk, Fazylov, Feigin, Feng, Fereshtehnejad, Feroze, Ferrara, Ferrari, Ferreira, Fetensa, Feyisa, Filip, Fischer, Fitriana, Flavel, Flohr, Flood, Flor, Foigt, Folayan, Force, Fortuna, Foschi, Franklin, Freitas, Friedman, Fux, Gaal, Gaihre, Gajdács, Galali, Gallus, Gandhi, Ganesan, Ganiyani, Garcia, Gardner, Garg, Gautam, Gebi, Gebregergis, Gebrehiwot, Gebremariam, Gebremeskel, Gerema, Getacher, Getahun, Getie, Ghadirian, Ghafarian, Ghaffari Jolfayi, Ghailan, Ghajar, Ghasemi, Ghasempour Dabaghi, Ghasemzadeh, Ghassemi, Ghazy, Gholami, Gholamrezanezhad, Gholizadeh, Ghorbani, Gil, Gil, Gilbertson, Gill, Gill, Gindaba, Girmay, Glasbey, Gnedovskaya, Göbölös, Godinho, Goel, Golechha, Goleij, Golinelli, Gomes, Gopalani, Gorini, Goudarzi, Goulart, Gouravani, Goyal, Graham, Grivna, Grosso, Guan, Guarducci, Gubari, Guha, Guicciardi, Gulati, Gulisashvili, Gunawardane, Guo, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Habibzadeh, Habibzadeh, Hadaro, Hadian, Haep, Haghi-Aminjan, Haghmorad, Hagins, Haile, Hailu, Hajj Ali, Halboub, Halimi, Hall, Haller, Halwani, Hamadeh, Hamdy, Hameed, Hamidi, Hammoud, Hanif, Hanifi, Haq, Haque, Harapan, Hargono, Haro, Hasaballah, Hasan, Hasan, Hasan, Hasani, Hasanian, Hashmeh, Hasnain, Hassan, Hassan, Hassan Zadeh Tabatabaei, Hassani, Hassanipour, Hassankhani, Haubold, Havmoeller, Hay, Hebert, Hegazi, Hegena, Heidari, Heidari, Helfer, Hemmati, Henson, Herbert, Herteliu, Heuer, Hezam, Hinneh, Hiraike, Hoan, Holla, Hon, Hoque, Horita, Hossain, Hosseini, Hosseinzadeh, Hosseinzadeh, Hostiuc, Hostiuc, Hoven, Hsairi, Hsu, Hu, Huang, Huda, Hulland, Hultström, Hushmandi, Hussain, Hussein, Huynh, Huynh, Ibitoye, Idowu, Ihler, Ikeda, Ikuta, Ilesanmi, Ilic, Ilic, Imam, Immurana, Inbaraj, Irham, Isa, Islam, Ismail, Ismail, Iso, Isola, Iwagami, Iwu, Iwu-Jaja, Jaafari, Jacob, Jacobsen, Jadidi-Niaragh, Jahankhani, Jahanmehr, Jahrami, Jain, Jain, Jairoun, Jaiswal, Jakovljevic, Jalilzadeh Yengejeh, Jamora, Jatau, Javadov, Javaheri, Jayaram, Jeganathan, Jeswani, Jiang, Johnson, Jokar, Jomehzadeh, Jonas, Joo, Joseph, Joseph, Joshi, Joshua, Jozwiak, Jürisson, Kaambwa, Kabir, Kabir, Kadashetti, Kahn, Kalani, Kaliyadan, Kalra, Kamath, Kanagasabai, Kanchan, Kandel, Kanmiki, Kanmodi, Kansal, Kapner, Kapoor, Karagiannidis, Karajizadeh, Karakasis, Karanth, Karaye, Karch, Karim, Karimi, Karmakar, Kashoo, Kasraei, Kassahun, Kassebaum, Kassel, Katikireddi, Kauppila, Kawakami, Kaydi, Kayode, Kazemi, Keiyoro, Kemmer, Kempen, Kerr, Kesse-Guyot, Khader, Khafaie, Khajuria, Khalaji, Khalil, Khalilian, Khamesipour, Khan, Khan, Khan, Khan, Khan, Khanmohammadi, Khatab, Khatatbeh, Khatatbeh, Khatib, Khavandegar, Khayat Kashani, Khidri, Khodadoust, Khormali, Khorrami, Khosla, Khosrowjerdi, Khreis, Khusun, Kifle, Kim, Kim, Kim, Kimokoti, Kisa, Kisa, Knibbs, Knudsen, Koh, Kolahi, Kompani, Kong, Koren, Korja, Korshunov, Korzh, Kosen, Kothari, Koul, Koulmane Laxminarayana, Krishan, Krishnamoorthy, Krishnamoorthy, Krishnan, Krohn, Kuate Defo, Kucuk Bicer, Kuddus, Kuddus, Kugbey, Kuitunen, Kulimbet, Kulkarni, Kumar, Kumar, Kumar, Kundu, Kurmi, Kusnali, Kusuma, Kutluk, La Vecchia, Ladan, Laflamme, Lahariya, Lai, Lal, Lallukka, Lám, Lan, Lan, Landires, Lanfranchi, Langguth, Lansingh, Laplante-Lévesque, Larijani, Larsson, Lasrado, Lauriola, Le, Le, Le, Le, Leasher, Ledda, Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee, LeGrand, Leigh, Leong, Lerango, Lescinsky, Leung, Li, Li, Li, Li, Li, Ligade, Lim, Lim, Lin, Lin, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Livingstone, Llanaj, Lohiya, López-Bueno, Lopukhov, Lorkowski, Lotufo, Lozano, Lubinda, Lucchetti, Luo, lv, Amin, Ma, Maass, Mabrok, Machairas, Machoy, Mafhoumi, Magdy Abd El Razek, Maghazachi, Mahadeshwara Prasad, Maharaj, Mahmoud, Mahmoudi, Majeed, Makram, Makris, Malasala, Maled, Malhotra, Malik, Malik, Malinga, Malta, Mamun, Manda, Manla, Mansour, Mansouri, Mansouri, Mansourian, Mansournia, Mantovani, Manu, Marateb, Maravilla, Marsh, Martinez, Martinez-Piedra, Martini, Martins-Melo, Martorell, Marx, Maryam, Mathangasinghe, Mathioudakis, Matozinhos, Mattumpuram, Maugeri, Maulik, Mayeli, Mazidi, Mazzotti, McGrath, McKee, McKowen, McLaughlin, McPhail, McPhail, Mechili, Mehmood, Mehmood, Mehrabani-Zeinabad, Mehrabi Nasab, Meier, Mejia-Rodriguez, Mekene Meto, Mekonnen, Menezes, Mengist, Mensah, Mensah, Mentis, Meo, Meretoja, Meretoja, Mersha, Mesfin, Mestrovic, Mettananda, Mettananda, Miazgowski, Micha, Michalek, Micheletti Gomide Nogueira de Sá, Miller, Mirarefin, Mirghafourvand, Mirica, Mirijello, Mirrakhimov, Mirshahi, Mirzaei, Mishra, Mishra, Mitchell, Mithra, Mittal, Moazen, Moberg, Mocciaro, Mohamadkhani, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohammadi, Mohammadi, Mohammadian-Hafshejani, Mohammadifard, Mohammed, Mohammed, Mohammed, Mohammed, Mokdad, Monasta, Mondello, Moni, Moodi Ghalibaf, Moore, Moradi, Moradi, Moraga, Morawska, Moreira, Morovatdar, Morrison, Morze, Mosaddeghi Heris, Mossialos, Motappa, Mougin, Mousavi, Msherghi, Mubarik, Muccioli, Mueller, Mulita, Mullany, Munjal, Murillo-Zamora, Murlimanju, Musina, Mustafa, Muthu, Muthupandian, Muthusamy, Muzaffar, Myung, Nafei, Nagarajan, Nagaraju, Nagel, Naghavi, Naghavi, Naik, Naik, Nainu, Nair, Najdaghi, Nakhostin Ansari, Nanavaty, Nangia, Narasimha Swamy, Narimani Davani, Nascimento, Nascimento, Nashwan, Natto, Nauman, Navaratna, Naveed, Nayak, Nayak, Ndejjo, Nduaguba, Negash, Negoi, Negoi, Nejadghaderi, Nejjari, Nematollahi, Nepal, Neupane, Ng, Nguefack-Tsague, Ngunjiri, Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen Tran Minh, Niazi, Nicholson, Nie, Nikoobar, Nikpoor, Ningrum, Nnaji, Noman, Nomura, Noroozi, Norrving, Noubiap, Nri-Ezedi, Ntaios, Ntsekhe, Nunemo, Nurrika, Nutor, Oancea, O’Connell, Odetokun, O’Donnell, Oduro, Ogunfowokan, Ogunkoya, Oh, Okati-Aliabad, Okeke, Okekunle, Okonji, Olagunju, Olasupo, Olatubi, Oliveira, Oliveira, Olorukooba, Olufadewa, Olusanya, Olusanya, Oluwafemi, Omar, Omar Bali, Omer, Ong, Ong, Onwujekwe, Onyedibe, Oppong, Ordak, Orish, Ornello, Orpana, Ortiz, Ortiz-Prado, Osman, Ostroff, Osuagwu, Otoiu, Otstavnov, Otstavnov, Ouyahia, Owolabi, Oyeyemi, Oyeyemi, Pacheco-Barrios, Padron-Monedero, Padubidri, Pal, Palicz, Pan, Pan, Pana, Panda, Panda-Jonas, Pandey, Pandi-Perumal, Pangaribuan, Pantazopoulos, Pantea Stoian, Papadopoulou, Parent, Parija, Parikh, Park, Park, Parsons, Pashaei, Pasovic, Passera, Patil, Patoulias, Patthipati, Paudel, Pawar, Pazoki Toroudi, Peden, Pedersini, Peng, Pensato, Pepito, Peprah, Peprah, Peres, Perianayagam, Perico, Perna, Pesudovs, Petcu, Petermann-Rocha, Pham, Philip, Phillips, Pickering, Pierannunzio, Pigeolet, Pigott, Piracha, Piradov, Pisoni, Piyasena, Plass, Plotnikov, Poddighe, Polkinghorne, Poluru, Pond, Popovic, Porru, Postma, Poudel, Pour-Rashidi, Pourshams, Pourtaheri, Prabhu, Prada, Pradhan, Pradhan, Prasad, Prates, Purnobasuki, Purohit, Puvvula, Qasim, Qattea, Qazi, Qian, Qiu, Rabiee Rad, Radfar, Radhakrishnan, Radhakrishnan, Raeisi Shahraki, Rafferty, Rafiei, Raggi, Raghav, Raheem, Rahim, Rahim, Rahimifard, Rahimi-Movaghar, Rahman, Rahman, Rahmani, Rahmani, Rahmanian, Rahmanian, Rahmanian, Rahmati, Rahmawaty, Raimondo, Rajaa, Rajendran, Rajput, Ramadan, Ramasamy, Ramasubramani, Ramazanu, Ramteke, Rana, Rana, Ranabhat, Rane, Rani, Ranta, Rao, Rao, Rao, Rao, Rasella, Rashedi, Rashedi, Rashidi, Rashidi, Rasouli-Saravani, Ratan, Rathnaiah Babu, Rauniyar, Rautalin, Rawaf, Rawaf, Rawassizadeh, Razo, Reda, Reddy, Redwan, Reifels, Reitsma, Remuzzi, Reshmi, Resnikoff, Restaino, Reyes, Rezaei, Rezaei, Rezaei, Rezaeian, Rhee, Riaz, Ribeiro, Rickard, Robinson-Oden, Rodrigues, Rodrigues, Rodriguez, Roever, Romadlon, Ronfani, Rosauer, Roshandel, Rostamian, Rotimi, Rout, Roy, Roy, Rubagotti, Ruela, de, Rumisha, Runghien, Russo, Ruzzante, Saad, Saber, Saber-Ayad, Sabour, Sacco, Sachdev, Sachdeva, Saddik, Saddler, Sadee, Sadeghi, Sadeghi, Sadeghi Majd, Saeb, Saeed, Safari, Safi, Safi, Sagar, Sagoe, Saheb Sharif-Askari, Saheb Sharif-Askari, Sahebkar, Sahoo, Sahu, Saif, Sajid, Sakshaug, Salam, Salamati, Salami, Salaroli, Salehi, Salehi, Salem, Salem, Salihu, Salimi, Salum, Samadi Kafil, Samadzadeh, Samodra, Samuel, Samy, Sanabria, Sanjeev, Sanna, Santomauro, Santric-Milicevic, Sarasmita, Saraswathy, Saravanan, Saravi, Sarikhani, Sarmiento-Suárez, Sarode, Sarode, Sartorius, Sarveazad, Sathian, Sattin, Sawhney, Saya, Sayeed, Sayeed, Sayyah, Schinckus, Schmidt, Schuermans, Schumacher, Schutte, Schwarzinger, Schwebel, Schwendicke, Selvaraj, Semreen, Senthilkumaran, Serban, Serre, Sethi, Shafie, Shah, Shah, Shah, Shah, Shahbandi, Shaheen, Shahid, Shahid, Shahsavari, Shahwan, Shaikh, Shaikh, Shalash, Sham, Shamim, Shams-Beyranvand, Shamshirgaran, Shamsi, Shanawaz, Shankar, Sharfaei, Sharifan, Sharifi-Rad, Sharma, Sharma, Sharma, Shastry, Shavandi, Shehabeldine, Shehzadi, Sheikh, Shen, Shetty, Shetty, Shetty, Shiani, Shiferaw, Shigematsu, Shin, Shiri, Shittu, Shiue, Shivakumar, Shivarov, Shool, Shorofi, Shrestha, Shrestha, Shuja, Shuval, Si, Siddig, Silva, Silva, Silva, Silva, Simpson, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Sinto, Sivakumar, Siwal, Skhvitaridze, Skou, Sleet, Sobia, Soboka, Socea, Solaimanian, Solanki, Solanki, Soliman, Somayaji, Song, Sorensen, Soriano, Soyiri, Spartalis, Spearman, Spencer, Sreeramareddy, Stachteas, Stafford, Stanaway, Stanikzai, Stein, Stein, Steinbeis, Steiner, Steinke, Steiropoulos, Stockfelt, Stokes, Straif, Stranges, Subedi, Subramaniyan, Suleman, Suliankatchi Abdulkader, Sundström, Sunkersing, Sunnerhagen, Suresh, Swain, Szarpak, Szeto, Tabaee Damavandi, Tabarés-Seisdedos, Tabatabaei, Tabatabaei Malazy, Tabatabaeizadeh, Tabatabai, Tabche, Tabish, Tadakamadla, Taheri Abkenar, Taheri Soodejani, Taherkhani, Taiba, Takahashi, Talaat, Tamuzi, Tan, Tang, Tat, Taveira, Tefera, Tehrani-Banihashemi, Temesgen, Temsah, Teramoto, Terefa, Teye-Kwadjo, Thakur, Thangaraju, Thankappan, Thapar, Thayakaran, Thirunavukkarasu, Thomas, Thomas, Tian, Tichopad, Ticoalu, Tiruye, Tobe-Gai, Tolani, Tolossa, Tonelli, Topor-Madry, Topouzis, Touvier, Tovani-Palone, Trabelsi, Tran, Tran, Tran, Trico, Trihandini, Troeger, Tromans, Truyen, Tsatsakis, Tsermpini, Tumurkhuu, Udoakang, Udoh, Ullah, Ullah, Ullah, Umair, Umakanthan, Unim, Unnikrishnan, Upadhyay, Urso, Usman, Vaithinathan, Vakili, Valenti, Valizadeh, Van den Eynde, van Donkelaar, Varga, Vart, Varthya, Vasankari, Vasic, Vaziri, Venketasubramanian, Verghese, Verma, Veroux, Verras, Vervoort, Villafañe, Villalobos-Daniel, Villani, Villanueva, Vinayak, Violante, Vlassov, Vo, Vollset, Volovat, Vos, Vujcic, Waheed, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wanjau, Waqas, Ward, Waris, Wassie, Weerakoon, Weintraub, Weiss, Weiss, Weldetinsaa, Wells, Wen, Wiangkham, Wickramasinghe, Wilkerson, Willeit, Wilson, Wong, Wongsin, Wozniak, Wu, Wu, Wu, Wu, Xia, Xiao, Xu, Xu, Xu, Yadav, Yaghoubi, Yamagishi, Yang, Yano, Yaribeygi, Yasufuku, Ye, Yesodharan, Yesuf, Yezli, Yi, Yiğit, Yigzaw, Yin, Yip, Yismaw, Yon, Yonemoto, You, Younis, Yousefi, Yu, Yu, Zadey, Zadnik, Zakham, Zaki, Zakzuk, Zamagni, Zaman, Zandieh, Zanghì, Zar, Zare, Zarimeidani, Zastrozhin, Zeng, Zhai, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhao, Zhao, Zhao, Zhao, Zhao, Zhong, Zhou, Zhou, Zhou, Zhu, Zhu, Zhu, Ziaeian, Ziafati, Zielińska, Zimsen, Zoghi, Zoller, Zumla, Zyoud, Zyoud, Murray and Gakidou2024). The next step was to estimate effect size by quantifying the relative risk (RR) of the specified health outcome occurring as a function of exposure to child maltreatment for each risk-outcome pair.

We used ACMS data to calculate RRs for four mental disorders: generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), AUDs and MDD, as well as two health risk behaviours: current cigarette smoking (in the past 12 months) and suicide attempts (ever) (answering yes to the question ‘Have you ever attempted suicide?’). Diagnoses of GAD (current), PTSD (current), AUD (current) and MDD (lifetime) in ACMS were established using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI), version 7.0.2 (Lecrubier et al., Reference Lecrubier, Sheehan, Weiller, Amorim, Bonora, Harnett Sheehan, Janavs and Dunbar1997; Sheehan et al., Reference Sheehan, Lecrubier, Sheehan, Amorim, Janavs, Weiller, Hergueta, Baker and Dunbar1998). For PTSD, the standard MINI module asks if respondents have been exposed to an index trauma and if endorsed, follows by asking if they have ongoing distress or impairment relating to this event. It does not record the index trauma. Importantly the probe questions then determine if the individual meets all of the diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Exposure to trauma is necessary for the diagnosis of PTSD but on its own does not qualify an individual for this diagnosis.

RRs were calculated using log-binomial regression and all models were fitted using the GLIMMIX procedure in SAS Version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., 2013). We calculated RRs separately for men and for women for all ages combined. We took two different approaches to dealing with the maltreatment patterns in calculating RRs: first considering experiencing the number of types of maltreatment from 0 to 5 (base estimates), and then additionally estimating RRs for the six most common patterns of child maltreatment ((i) exposure to domestic violence, emotional abuse, physical abuse and sexual abuse [EDV + EA + PA + SA]; (ii) exposure to domestic violence, emotional abuse and physical abuse [EDV + EA + PA]; (iii) exposure to domestic violence and emotional abuse [EDV + EA]; (iv) all five types; (v) exposure to domestic violence and physical abuse [EDV + PA] and (vi) exposure to domestic violence and sexual abuse [EDV + SA]) in sensitivity analyses. The other 26 patterns of child maltreatment occurred too infrequently to calculate reliable RR estimates (details of sensitivity analyses in Appendix 4). We ran the models with two different levels of adjustment for other factors – first controlling for age, geographical remoteness and childhood financial stress (simply adjusted model) used in base estimates (Table 1) and sensitivity analysis 1 (Table A3). Then secondly, with additional adjustment for other ACEs (which includes experiencing community violence), as well as peer and sibling bullying victimisation in childhood (fully adjusted model) used in sensitivity analyses 2 and 3 (details presented in Appendix 4, Tables A4-5).

Table 1.

Relative risks (RRs) of health outcomes by experience of child maltreatment and gender (used in base estimates)

MDD = major depressive disorder; GAD = generalised anxiety disorder; PTSD = post-traumatic stress disorder.

Reference category is no experience of child maltreatment which is assigned RR = 1.

* Same RRs were assumed to apply across all age groups.

Simply adjusted model (age, childhood financial stress and geographical remoteness).

Theoretical minimum risk exposure level (TMREL)

The TMREL, or the counterfactual level of risk exposure that minimises disease risk at the population level, was defined as no exposure to child maltreatment in the population (Appendix 5).

Population attributable fractions

The PAF, or the proportional change in health risk that would occur if exposure to child maltreatment were reduced to the TMREL, was calculated using prevalence estimated for the 32 combinations of the five types of child maltreatment by gender and 5-year age groups, paired with the RRs of disease occurrence given exposure calculated above. The PAFs for this polytomous risk factor for all forms of child maltreatment combined in Australia in 2021 were calculated using customised MS Excel spreadsheets (details described in Appendix 5).

Attributable burden

Age-gender specific PAFs were then applied to estimates of the burden of disease (deaths, years of life lost (YLLs) due to premature mortality, years lived with disability (YLDs) and DALYs in Australia from GBD 2021 (GBD Collaborative Network, 2021; Ferrari et al., Reference Ferrari, Santomauro, Aali, Abate, Abbafati, Abbastabar, Abd ElHafeez, Abdelmasseh, Abd-Elsalam, Abdollahi, Abdullahi, Abegaz, Abeldaño Zuñiga, Aboagye, Abolhassani, Abreu, Abualruz, Abu-Gharbieh, Abu-Rmeileh, Ackerman, Addo, Addolorato, Adebiyi, Adepoju, Adewuyi, Afyouni, Afzal, Afzal, Agodi, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ajami, Akinosoglou, Akkaif, Al Hasan, Alalalmeh, Al-Aly, Albashtawy, Aldridge, Alemu, Alemu, Alene, Al-Gheethi, Alharrasi, Alhassan, Ali, Ali, Ali, Alif, Aljunid, Al-Marwani, Almazan, Alomari, Al-Omari, Altaany, Alvis-Guzman, Alvis-Zakzuk, Alwafi, Al-Wardat, Al-Worafi, Aly, Alzoubi, Amare, Amegbor, Ameyaw, Amin, Amindarolzarbi, Amiri, Amugsi, Ancuceanu, Anderlini, Anderson, Andrade, Andrei, Ansari, Antony, Anwar, Anwar, Anwer, Anyanwu, Arab, Arabloo, Arafat, Araki, Aravkin, Arkew, Armocida, Arndt, Arooj, Artamonov, Aruleba, Arumugam, Ashbaugh, Ashemo, Ashraf, Asika, Askari, Astell-Burt, Athari, Atorkey, Atout, Atreya, Aujayeb, Ausloos, Avan, Awotidebe, Awuviry-Newton, Ayala Quintanilla, Ayuso-Mateos, Azadnajafabad, Azevedo, Babu, Badar, Badiye, Baghdadi, Bagheri, Bah, Bai, Baker, Bakkannavar, Bako, Balakrishnan, Bam, Banik, Barchitta, Bardhan, Bardideh, Barker-Collo, Barqawi, Barrow, Barteit, Barua, Bashiri Aliabadi, Basiru, Basu, Basu, Bathini, Batra, Baune, Bayileyegn, Behnam, Behnoush, Beiranvand, Bejarano Ramirez, Bell, Bello, Beloukas, Bensenor, Berezvai, Bernabe, Bernstein, Bettencourt, Bhagavathula, Bhala, Bhandari, Bhargava, Bhaskar, Bhat, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhutta, Bikbov, Bishai, Bisignano, Bitra, Bjørge, Bodolica, Bodunrin, Bogale, Bonakdar Hashemi, Bonny, Bora Basara, Borhany, Boxe, Brady, Bragazzi, Braithwaite, Brant, Brauer, Breitner, Brenner, Brown, Brugha, Bulamu, Buonsenso, Burkart, Burns, Busse, Bustanji, Butt, Byun, Caetano dos Santos, Calina, Cámera, Campos-Nonato, Cao, Capodici, Carr, Carreras, Carugno, Carvalho, Castaldelli-Maia, Castañeda-Orjuela, Castelpietra, Catapano, Cattaruzza, Caye, Cegolon, Cembranel, Cenderadewi, Cerin, Chakraborty, Chan, Chan, Chandika, Chandrasekar, Charalampous, Chattu, Chatzimavridou-Grigoriadou, Chen, Chen, Chen, Chen, Chen, Cheng, Chimed-Ochir, Chimoriya, Ching, Cho, Choi, Chong, Chong, Choudhari, Chowdhury, Christensen, Chu, Chukwu, Chung, Chung, Chutiyami, Claassens, Cogen, Columbus, Conde, Cortesi, Cousin, Criqui, Cruz-Martins, Dadras, Dai, Dai, Dai, Dalaba, Damiani, Das, Das, Dashti, Dávila-Cervantes, Davletov, De Leo, Debele, Debopadhaya, DeCleene, Deeba, Degenhardt, Del Bo’, Delgado-Enciso, Demetriades, Denova-Gutiérrez, Dervenis, Desai, Desai, Deuba, Dhama, Dharmaratne, Dhingra, Dias da Silva, Diaz, Diaz, Diaz, Dima, Ding, Dirac, Do, do Prado, Dohare, Dominguez, Dong, Dongarwar, D’Oria, Dorsey, Doshmangir, Dowou, Driscoll, Dsouza, Dsouza, Dube, Dumith, Duncan, Duraes, Duraisamy, Durojaiye, Dzianach, Dziedzic, Eboreime, Ebrahimi, Edinur, Edvardsson, Eikemo, Eini, Ekholuenetale, Ekundayo, El Sayed, El Tantawi, Elbarazi, Elemam, ElGohary, Elhadi, Elmeligy, ELNahas, Elshaer, Elsohaby, Engelbert Bain, Erkhembayar, Eshrati, Estep, Fabin, Fagbamigbe, Falzone, Fareed, Farinha, Faris, Faro, Farrokhi, Fatehizadeh, Fauk, Feigin, Feng, Fereshtehnejad, Feroze, Ferreira, Ferreira, Fischer, Flavel, Flood, Flor, Foigt, Folayan, Force, Fortuna, Foschi, Franklin, Freitas, Fukumoto, Furtado, Gaal, Gadanya, Gaidhane, Gaihre, Galali, Ganbat, Gandhi, Ganesan, Ganie, Ganiyani, Gardner, Gebi, Gebregergis, Gebrehiwot, Gebremariam, Gebremeskel, Gela, Georgescu, Getachew Obsa, Gething, Getie, Ghadiri, Ghadirian, Ghailan, Ghajar, Ghasemi, Ghasempour Dabaghi, Ghasemzadeh, Ghazy, Gholamrezanezhad, Ghorbani, Ghotbi, Gibson, Gill, Ginindza, Girmay, Glasbey, Göbölös, Godinho, Goharinezhad, Goldust, Golechha, Goleij, Gona, Gorini, Goulart, Grada, Grivna, Guan, Guarducci, Gubari, Gudeta, Guha, Guicciardi, Gulati, Gulisashvili, Gunawardane, Guo, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gutiérrez, Habibzadeh, Habibzadeh, Haddadi, Hadi, Haep, Hafezi-Nejad, Hafiz, Hagins, Halboub, Halimi, Haller, Halwani, Hamilton, Hankey, Hannan, Haque, Harapan, Haro, Hartvigsen, Hasaballah, Hasan, Hasanian, Hasnain, Hassan, Haubold, Havmoeller, Hay, Hayat, Hebert, Hegazi, Heidari, Helfer, Hemmati, Hendrie, Henson, Hezam, Hiraike, Hoan, Holla, Hon, Hossain, Hosseinzadeh, Hosseinzadeh, Hostiuc, Hostiuc, Hsu, Huang, Hugo, Hushmandi, Hussain, Hussein, Huynh, Huynh, Hwang, Iannucci, Ihler, Ikiroma, Ikuta, Ilesanmi, Ilic, Ilic, Imam, Immurana, Irham, Islam, Islam, Islami, Ismail, Ismail, Isola, Iwagami, Iwu, Iyer, Jaafari, Jacobsen, Jadidi-Niaragh, Jafarinia, Jaggi, Jahankhani, Jahanmehr, Jahrami, Jain, Jain, Jairoun, Jaiswal, Jakovljevic, Jatau, Javadov, Javaheri, Jayapal, Jayaram, Jee, Jeganathan, Jeyakumar, Jha, Jiang, Jin, Jonas, Joo, Joseph, Joseph, Joshua, Jozwiak, Jürisson, Kaambwa, Kabir, Kabir, Kadashetti, Kalani, Kalankesh, Kaliyadan, Kalra, Kamenov, Kamyari, Kanagasabai, Kandel, Kanmanthareddy, Kanmodi, Kantar, Karaye, Karim, Karimi, Karimi, Kasraei, Kassel, Kauppila, Kawakami, Kayode, Kazemi, Kazemian, Keikavoosi-Arani, Keller, Kempen, Kerr, Keshtkar, Kesse-Guyot, Keykhaei, Khajuria, Khalaji, Khalid, Khalid, Khalilian, Khamesipour, Khan, Khan, Khan, Khan, Khanmohammadi, Khatab, Khatami, Khatatbeh, Khater, Khayat Kashani, Khidri, Khodadoust, Khormali, Khorrami, Kifle, Kim, Kimokoti, Kisa, Kisa, Knudsen, Kocarnik, Kochhar, Koh, Kolahi, Kompani, Koren, Korzh, Kosen, Koulmane Laxminarayana, Krishan, Krishna, Krishnamoorthy, Kuate Defo, Kuddus, Kuddus, Kuitunen, Kulkarni, Kumar, Kumar, Kumar, Kurmi, Kusuma, Kyu, La Vecchia, Lacey, Ladan, Laflamme, Lafranconi, Lahariya, Lai, Lal, Lalloo, Lallukka, Lám, Lan, Lan, Landires, Lanfranchi, Langguth, Laplante-Lévesque, Larijani, Larsson, Lasrado, Lauriola, Le, Le, Le, Le, Leasher, Ledda, Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee, LeGrand, Lenzi, Leong, Leung, Li, Li, Li, Li, Li, Lim, Lim, Lindstrom, Linn, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Llanaj, Lo, López-Bueno, Loreche, Lorenzovici, Lozano, Lubinda, Lucchetti, Lunevicius, Lusk, Ma, Machairas, Madureira-Carvalho, Magaña Gómez, Maghazachi, Maharjan, Mahasha, Maheri, Mahjoub, Mahmoud, Mahmoudi, Majeed, Makris, Malakan Rad, Malhotra, Malik, Malik, Malta, Manla, Mansour, Mansouri, Mansournia, Mantilla Herrera, Mantovani, Manu, Marateb, Mardi, Martinez, Martinez-Piedra, Martini, Martins-Melo, Martorell, Marx, Maryam, Marzo, Mathangasinghe, Mathieson, Mathioudakis, Mattumpuram, Maugeri, Mayeli, Mazidi, Mazzotti, McGrath, McKee, McKowen, McPhail, Mehrabani-Zeinabad, Mehrabi Nasab, Mekene Meto, Mendoza, Menezes, Mensah, Mentis, Meo, Meresa, Meretoja, Meretoja, Mersha, Mestrovic, Mettananda, Mettananda, Michalek, Miller, Miller, Mills, Minh, Mirijello, Mirrakhimov, Mirutse, Mirza-Aghazadeh-Attari, Mirzaei, Mirzaei, Misganaw, Mishra, Mitchell, Mittal, Moazen, Moberg, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohammadi, Mohammadi, Mohammed, Mohammed, Mohammed, Mohr, Mokdad, Molinaro, Momtazmanesh, Monasta, Mondello, Moodi Ghalibaf, Moradi, Moradi, Moradi-Lakeh, Moraga, Morawska, Moreira, Morovatdar, Morrison, Morze, Mosapour, Mosser, Mossialos, Motappa, Mougin, Mouodi, Mrejen, Msherghi, Mubarik, Mueller, Mulita, Munjal, Murillo-Zamora, Murlimanju, Mustafa, Muthu, Muzaffar, Myung, Nagarajan, Naghavi, Naik, Nainu, Nair, Najmuldeen, Nangia, Naqvi, Narayana, Nargus, Nascimento, Nashwan, Nasrollahizadeh, Nasrollahizadeh, Natto, Nayak, Nayak, Nduaguba, Negash, Negoi, Negoi, Nejadghaderi, Nesbit, Netsere, Ng, Nguefack-Tsague, Ngunjiri, Nguyen, Nguyen, Niazi, Nikolouzakis, Nikoobar, Nikoomanesh, Nikpoor, Nnaji, Nnyanzi, Noman, Nomura, Norrving, Nri-Ezedi, Ntaios, Ntsekhe, Nurrika, Nzoputam, Nzoputam, Oancea, Odetokun, O’Donnell, Oguntade, Oguta, Okati-Aliabad, Okeke, Okekunle, Okonji, Olagunju, Olasupo, Olatubi, Oliveira, Olufadewa, Olusanya, Olusanya, Omar, Omer, Omonisi, Onie, Onwujekwe, Ordak, Orish, Ortega-Altamirano, Ortiz, Ortiz-Brizuela, Osman, Ostroff, Osuagwu, Otoiu, Otstavnov, Otstavnov, Ouyahia, Ouyang, Owolabi, Padron-Monedero, Padubidri, Palicz, Palladino, Pan, Pandi-Perumal, Pangaribuan, Panos, Panos, Pantea Stoian, Pardhan, Parikh, Pashaei, Pasovic, Passera, Patel, Patel, Patil, Patoulias, Patthipati, Pawar, Pazoki Toroudi, Pease, Peden, Pedersini, Peng, Pensato, Pepito, Peprah, Peprah, Perdigão, Pereira, Perianayagam, Perico, Pesudovs, Petermann-Rocha, Petri, Pham, Philip, Phillips, Pigeolet, Pigott, Pillay, Piracha, Pirouzpanah, Plass, Plotnikov, Poddighe, Polinder, Postma, Pourtaheri, Prada, Pradhan, Prakash, Prasad, Prates, Priscilla, Pritchett, Puri, Puvvula, Qasim, Qattea, Qazi, Qian, Rabiee Rad, Radhakrishnan, Radhakrishnan, Raeisi Shahraki, Rafferty, Raggi, Raghav, Rahim, Rahman, Rahman, Rahman, Rahman, Rahmani, Rahmanian, Rahmawaty, Rajaa, Ramadan, Ramasamy, Ramasubramani, Ramazanu, Rana, Ranabhat, Rancic, Rane, Rao, Rao, Rao, Rao, Rashidi, Rathnaiah Babu, Rauniyar, Rawaf, Rawaf, Razo, Reddy, Redwan, Reifels, Reiner, Remuzzi, Renzaho, Reshmi, Reyes, Rezaei, Rezaei, Rezaei, Rezaei Hachesu, Rezaeian, Rickard, Rodrigues, Rodriguez, Roever, Ronfani, Roshandel, Rotimi, Rout, Roy, Roy, Roy, Rubagotti, Saad, Saber-Ayad, Sabour, Sacco, Sachdev, Saddik, Saddler, Sadee, Sadeghi, Sadeghi, Saeb, Saeed, Safi, Sagar, Sagoe, Saif, Sajid, Sakshaug, Salam, Salami, Salaroli, Saleh, Salem, Salem, Sallam, Samadzadeh, Samargandy, Samodra, Samy, Sanabria, Sanna, Santos, Santric-Milicevic, Sarasmita, Sarikhani, Sarmiento-Suárez, Sarode, Sarode, Sarveazad, Sathian, Sathyanarayan, Satpathy, Sawhney, Scarmeas, Schaarschmidt, Schmidt, Schneider, Schumacher, Schwebel, Schwendicke, Sedighi, Senapati, Senthilkumaran, Sepanlou, Sethi, Setoguchi, Seylani, Shadid, Shafie, Shah, Shah, Shah, Shahbandi, Shahid, Shahid, Shahwan, Shaikh, Shakeri, Shalash, Sham, Shamim, Shamshirgaran, Shamsi, Shanawaz, Shankar, Shannawaz, Sharath, Sharifan, Sharifi-Rad, Sharma, Sharma, Sharma, Sharma, Sharma, Shastry, Shavandi, Shayan, Shayan, Shehabeldine, Shetty, Shibuya, Shifa, Shiferaw, Shiferaw, Shigematsu, Shiri, Shitaye, Shittu, Shivakumar, Shivarov, Shokati Eshkiki, Shool, Shrestha, Shuval, Sibhat, Siddig, Sigfusdottir, Silva, Silva, Silva, Silva, Simpson, Singal, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Skou, Sleet, Slepak, Solanki, Soliman, Song, Song, Sorensen, Soriano, Soyiri, Spartalis, Sreeramareddy, Stark, Starodubova, Stein, Stein, Steiner, Steiner, Steinmetz, Steiropoulos, Stockfelt, Stokes, Subedi, Subramaniyan, Suemoto, Suleman, Suliankatchi Abdulkader, Sultana, Sundström, Swain, Szarpak, Tabaee Damavandi, Tabarés-Seisdedos, Tabatabaei Malazy, Tabatabaeizadeh, Tabatabai, Tabche, Tabish, Tadakamadla, Taheri Abkenar, Taheri Soodejani, Taherkhani, Taiba, Talaat, Talukder, Tampa, Tamuzi, Tan, Tandukar, Tang, Tavakoli Oliaee, Tavangar, Teimoori, Temsah, Teramoto, Thangaraju, Thankappan, Thapar, Thayakaran, Thirunavukkarasu, Thomas, Thomas, Thum, Tichopad, Ticoalu, Tillawi, Tiruye, Tobe-Gai, Tonelli, Topor-Madry, Torre, Touvier, Tovani-Palone, Tran, Tran, Tran, Tran, Trico, Tromans, Truyen, Tsatsakis, Tsegay, Tsermpini, Tumurkhuu, Tyrovolas, Udoh, Umair, Umakanthan, Umar, Undurraga, Unim, Unnikrishnan, Unsworth, Upadhyay, Urso, Usman, Vahabi, Vaithinathan, Van den Eynde, Varga, Varma, Vart, Vasankari, Vasic, Vaziri, Vellingiri, Venketasubramanian, Veroux, Verras, Vervoort, Villafañe, Violante, Vlassov, Vollset, Volovat, Vongpradith, Waheed, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wang, Ward, Wassie, Weaver, Weerakoon, Weintraub, Weiss, Weldemariam, Wells, Wen, Whisnant, Whiteford, Wiangkham, Wickramasinghe, Wickramasinghe, Wilandika, Wilkerson, Willeit, Wimo, Woldegebreal, Wolf, Wong, Woolf, Wu, Wu, Wu, Wu, Wulf Hanson, Xia, Xiao, Xu, Xu, Yadav, Yadollahpour, Yaghoubi, Yamagishi, Yang, Yano, Yao, Yaribeygi, Yazdanpanah, Ye, Yehualashet, Yesuf, Yezli, Yiğit, Yiğit, Yigzaw, Yismaw, Yon, Yonemoto, Younis, Yu, Yu, Yusuf, Zahid, Zakham, Zaki, Zaki, Zaman, Zamora, Zand, Zandieh, Zar, Zarrintan, Zastrozhin, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhao, Zhong, Zhong, Zhou, Zhu, Ziafati, Zielińska, Zimsen, Zoladl, Zumla, Zyoud, Vos and Murray2024) for the health outcomes in this study to estimate attributable burden (i.e., the proportion of total disease burden attributable to child maltreatment).

In GBD studies, anxiety disorders are aggregated (Baxter et al., Reference Baxter, Vos, Scott, Ferrari and Whiteford2014), while in ACMS, only PTSD and GAD were measured. PTSD associated with child maltreatment was considered separately and GAD was used as a proxy for the remaining other anxiety disorders. In order to match to GBD disease and injury causes and definitions, we used data from the 2007 National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (Slade et al., Reference Slade, Johnston, Oakley Browne, Andrews and Whiteford2009) to disaggregate total burden of anxiety disorders in Australia from GBD 2021 into PTSD and other anxiety disorders. The PAF for PTSD was applied to PTSD burden and the PAF for GAD was applied to the remainder, or other anxiety disorders burden of disease estimates, and then added to estimate total anxiety disorders attributable burden.

Self-harm burden estimates for Australia from GBD 2021 include completed suicides and non-fatal injuries from self-harm and suicide attempts. PAFs for suicide attempts (ever) were applied to Australia GBD 2021 burden of disease estimates for intentional self-harm, including deaths (suicides), YLLs (suicides) and YLDs (non-fatal injuries from attempted suicides and self-harm). Attributable DALYs were calculated as the sum of YLLs and YLDs. In the case of current tobacco smoking associated with child maltreatment, the PAFs were applied to the burden attributable to tobacco smoking in Australia quantified in GBD 2021 (GBD Collaborative Network, 2021; Brauer et al., Reference Brauer, Roth, Aravkin, Zheng, Abate, Abate, Abbafati, Abbasgholizadeh, Abbasi, Abbasian, Abbasifard, Abbasi-Kangevari, Abd ElHafeez, Abd-Elsalam, Abdi, Abdollahi, Abdoun, Abdulah, Abdullahi, Abebe, Abedi, Abedi, Abegaz, Abeldaño Zuñiga, Abiodun, Abiso, Aboagye, Abolhassani, Abouzid, Aboye, Abreu, Abualruz, Abubakar, Abu-Gharbieh, Abukhadijah, Aburuz, Abu-Zaid, Adane, Addo, Addolorato, Adedoyin, Adekanmbi, Aden, Adetunji, Adeyeoluwa, Adha, Adibi, Adnani, Adzigbli, Afolabi, Afolabi, Afshin, Afyouni, Afzal, Afzal, Agampodi, Agbozo, Aghamiri, Agodi, Agrawal, Agyemang-Duah, Ahinkorah, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmad, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ahmed, Ajami, Akalu, Akara, Akbarialiabad, Akhlaghi, Akinosoglou, Akinyemiju, Akkaif, Akkala, Akombi-Inyang, Al Awaidy, Al Hasan, Alahdab, AL-Ahdal, Alalalmeh, Alalwan, Al-Aly, Alam, Alam, Alanezi, Alanzi, Albakri, AlBataineh, Aldhaleei, Aldridge, Alemayohu, Alemu, Al-Fatly, Al-Gheethi, Al-Habbal, Alhabib, Alhassan, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Ali, Alicandro, Alif, Aljunid, Alla, Al-Marwani, Al-Mekhlafi, Almustanyir, Alomari, Alonso, Alqahtani, Alqutaibi, Al-Raddadi, Alrawashdeh, Al-Rifai, Alrousan, Al-Sabah, Alshahrani, Altaany, Altaf, Al-Tawfiq, Altirkawi, Aluh, Alvis-Guzman, Alvis-Zakzuk, Alwafi, Al-Wardat, Al-Worafi, Aly, Aly, Alzoubi, Al-Zyoud, Amaechi, Aman Mohammadi, Amani, Amiri, Amirzade-Iranaq, Ammirati, Amu, Amugsi, Amusa, Ancuceanu, Anderlini, Anderson, Andrade, Andrei, Andrei, Anenberg, Angappan, Angus, Anil, Anil, Anjum, Anoushiravani, Antonazzo, Antony, Antriyandarti, Anuoluwa, Anvari, Anvari, Anwar, Anwar, Anwer, Anyabolo, Anyasodor, Apostol, Arabloo, Arabzadeh Bahri, Arafat, Areda, Aregawi, Aremu, Armocida, Arndt, Ärnlöv, Arooj, Artamonov, Artanti, Aruleba, Arumugam, Asbeutah, Asgary, Asgedom, Ashbaugh, Ashemo, Ashraf, Askarinejad, Assmus, Astell-Burt, Athar, Athari, Atorkey, Atreya, Aujayeb, Ausloos, Avila-Burgos, Awoke, Ayala Quintanilla, Ayatollahi, Ayestas Portugal, Ayuso-Mateos, Azadnajafabad, Azevedo, Azhar, Azizi, Azzam, Backhaus, Badar, Badiye, Bagga, Baghdadi, Bagheri, Bagherieh, Bahrami Taghanaki, Bai, Baig, Baker, Bakkannavar, Balasubramanian, Baltatu, Bam, Bandyopadhyay, Banik, Banik, Banke-Thomas, Bansal, Barchitta, Bardhan, Bardideh, Barker-Collo, Bärnighausen, Barone-Adesi, Barqawi, Barrero, Barrow, Barteit, Basharat, Basiru, Basso, Bastan, Basu, Batchu, Batra, Batra, Baune, Bayati, Bayileyegn, Beaney, Behnoush, Beiranvand, Béjot, Bekele, Belgaumi, Bell, Bell, Bello, Bello, Belo, Beloukas, Bendak, Bennett, Bennitt, Bensenor, Benzian, Beran, Berezvai, Bernabe, Bernstein, Bettencourt, Bhagavathula, Bhala, Bhandari, Bhardwaj, Bhardwaj, Bhaskar, Bhat, Bhat, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhatti, Bhuiyan, Bhutta, Bikbov, Bishai, Bisignano, Biswas, Biswas, Biswas, Bjørge, Boachie, Boakye, Bockarie, Bodolica, Bodunrin, Bogale, Bolla, Boloor, Bonakdar Hashemi, Boppana, Bora Basara, Borhany, Botero Carvajal, Bouaoud, Boufous, Bourne, Boxe, Braithwaite, Brant, Brar, Breitborde, Breitner, Brenner, Briko, Britton, Brown, Browne, Brunoni, Bryazka, Bulamu, Bulto, Buonsenso, Burkart, Burns, Busse, Bustanji, Butt, Butt, Caetano dos Santos, Cagney, Cahuana-Hurtado, Calina, Cámera, Campos, Campos-Nonato, Cao, Cao, Cao, Capodici, Cárdenas, Carr, Carreras, Carrero, Carugno, Carvalho, Carvalho, Castaldelli-Maia, Castañeda-Orjuela, Castelpietra, Catalá-López, Catapano, Cattaruzza, Caye, Cederroth, Cegolon, Cenderadewi, Cercy, Cerin, Chadwick, Chakraborty, Chakraborty, Chakraborty, Chan, Chan, Chandan, Chandika, Chaturvedi, Chen, Chen, Chen, Chen, Chen, Chen, Cheng, Cheng, Cherbuin, Chi, Chichagi, Chimed-Ochir, Chimoriya, Ching, Chirinos-Caceres, Chitheer, Cho, Chong, Chopra, Chowdhury, Christopher, Chu, Chukwu, Chung, Chung, Chutiyami, Cioffi, Cogen, Cohen, Columbus, Conde, Corlateanu, Cortese, Cortesi, Costa, Costanzo, Criqui, Cruz, Cruz-Martins, Culbreth, da Silva, Dadras, Dai, Dai, Daikwo, Dalli, Damiani, D’Amico, D’Anna, Darwesh, Das, Das, Dash, Dashti, Dávila-Cervantes, Davis Weaver, Davitoiu, De la Hoz, de la Torre-Luque, De Leo, Debopadhaya, Degenhardt, Del Bo’, Delgado-Enciso, Delgado-Saborit, Demoze, Denova-Gutiérrez, Dervenis, Dervišević, Desai, Desai, Devanbu, Dewan, Dhali, Dhama, Dhane, Dhimal, Dhimal, Dhingra, Dhulipala, Dhungana, Dias da Silva, Diaz, Diaz, Diaz, Dima, Ding, Dinu, Djalalinia, Do, THP, do Prado, Dodangeh, Dohare, Dokova, Dong, Dongarwar, D’Oria, Dorostkar, Dorsey, Doshi, Doshmangir, Dowou, Driscoll, Dsouza, Dsouza, Dumith, Duncan, Duraes, Duraisamy, Dushpanova, Dzianach, Dziedzic, Ebrahimi, Echieh, Ed-Dra, Edinur, Edvardsson, Edvardsson, Efendi, Eftekharimehrabad, Eini, Ekholuenetale, Ekundayo, El Arab, El Sayed Zaki, El-Dahiyat, Elemam, Elgar, ElGohary, Elhabashy, Elhadi, Elmehrath, Elmeligy, Elshaer, Elsohaby, Emeto, Esfandiari, Eshrati, Eslami, Esmaeili, Estep, Etaee, Fabin, Fagbamigbe, Fagbule, Fahimi, Falzone, Fareed, Farinha, Faris, Faris, Faro, Fasina, Fatehizadeh, Fauk, Fazylov, Feigin, Feng, Fereshtehnejad, Feroze, Ferrara, Ferrari, Ferreira, Fetensa, Feyisa, Filip, Fischer, Fitriana, Flavel, Flohr, Flood, Flor, Foigt, Folayan, Force, Fortuna, Foschi, Franklin, Freitas, Friedman, Fux, Gaal, Gaihre, Gajdács, Galali, Gallus, Gandhi, Ganesan, Ganiyani, Garcia, Gardner, Garg, Gautam, Gebi, Gebregergis, Gebrehiwot, Gebremariam, Gebremeskel, Gerema, Getacher, Getahun, Getie, Ghadirian, Ghafarian, Ghaffari Jolfayi, Ghailan, Ghajar, Ghasemi, Ghasempour Dabaghi, Ghasemzadeh, Ghassemi, Ghazy, Gholami, Gholamrezanezhad, Gholizadeh, Ghorbani, Gil, Gil, Gilbertson, Gill, Gill, Gindaba, Girmay, Glasbey, Gnedovskaya, Göbölös, Godinho, Goel, Golechha, Goleij, Golinelli, Gomes, Gopalani, Gorini, Goudarzi, Goulart, Gouravani, Goyal, Graham, Grivna, Grosso, Guan, Guarducci, Gubari, Guha, Guicciardi, Gulati, Gulisashvili, Gunawardane, Guo, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Gupta, Habibzadeh, Habibzadeh, Hadaro, Hadian, Haep, Haghi-Aminjan, Haghmorad, Hagins, Haile, Hailu, Hajj Ali, Halboub, Halimi, Hall, Haller, Halwani, Hamadeh, Hamdy, Hameed, Hamidi, Hammoud, Hanif, Hanifi, Haq, Haque, Harapan, Hargono, Haro, Hasaballah, Hasan, Hasan, Hasan, Hasani, Hasanian, Hashmeh, Hasnain, Hassan, Hassan, Hassan Zadeh Tabatabaei, Hassani, Hassanipour, Hassankhani, Haubold, Havmoeller, Hay, Hebert, Hegazi, Hegena, Heidari, Heidari, Helfer, Hemmati, Henson, Herbert, Herteliu, Heuer, Hezam, Hinneh, Hiraike, Hoan, Holla, Hon, Hoque, Horita, Hossain, Hosseini, Hosseinzadeh, Hosseinzadeh, Hostiuc, Hostiuc, Hoven, Hsairi, Hsu, Hu, Huang, Huda, Hulland, Hultström, Hushmandi, Hussain, Hussein, Huynh, Huynh, Ibitoye, Idowu, Ihler, Ikeda, Ikuta, Ilesanmi, Ilic, Ilic, Imam, Immurana, Inbaraj, Irham, Isa, Islam, Ismail, Ismail, Iso, Isola, Iwagami, Iwu, Iwu-Jaja, Jaafari, Jacob, Jacobsen, Jadidi-Niaragh, Jahankhani, Jahanmehr, Jahrami, Jain, Jain, Jairoun, Jaiswal, Jakovljevic, Jalilzadeh Yengejeh, Jamora, Jatau, Javadov, Javaheri, Jayaram, Jeganathan, Jeswani, Jiang, Johnson, Jokar, Jomehzadeh, Jonas, Joo, Joseph, Joseph, Joshi, Joshua, Jozwiak, Jürisson, Kaambwa, Kabir, Kabir, Kadashetti, Kahn, Kalani, Kaliyadan, Kalra, Kamath, Kanagasabai, Kanchan, Kandel, Kanmiki, Kanmodi, Kansal, Kapner, Kapoor, Karagiannidis, Karajizadeh, Karakasis, Karanth, Karaye, Karch, Karim, Karimi, Karmakar, Kashoo, Kasraei, Kassahun, Kassebaum, Kassel, Katikireddi, Kauppila, Kawakami, Kaydi, Kayode, Kazemi, Keiyoro, Kemmer, Kempen, Kerr, Kesse-Guyot, Khader, Khafaie, Khajuria, Khalaji, Khalil, Khalilian, Khamesipour, Khan, Khan, Khan, Khan, Khan, Khanmohammadi, Khatab, Khatatbeh, Khatatbeh, Khatib, Khavandegar, Khayat Kashani, Khidri, Khodadoust, Khormali, Khorrami, Khosla, Khosrowjerdi, Khreis, Khusun, Kifle, Kim, Kim, Kim, Kimokoti, Kisa, Kisa, Knibbs, Knudsen, Koh, Kolahi, Kompani, Kong, Koren, Korja, Korshunov, Korzh, Kosen, Kothari, Koul, Koulmane Laxminarayana, Krishan, Krishnamoorthy, Krishnamoorthy, Krishnan, Krohn, Kuate Defo, Kucuk Bicer, Kuddus, Kuddus, Kugbey, Kuitunen, Kulimbet, Kulkarni, Kumar, Kumar, Kumar, Kundu, Kurmi, Kusnali, Kusuma, Kutluk, La Vecchia, Ladan, Laflamme, Lahariya, Lai, Lal, Lallukka, Lám, Lan, Lan, Landires, Lanfranchi, Langguth, Lansingh, Laplante-Lévesque, Larijani, Larsson, Lasrado, Lauriola, Le, Le, Le, Le, Leasher, Ledda, Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee, LeGrand, Leigh, Leong, Lerango, Lescinsky, Leung, Li, Li, Li, Li, Li, Ligade, Lim, Lim, Lin, Lin, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Liu, Livingstone, Llanaj, Lohiya, López-Bueno, Lopukhov, Lorkowski, Lotufo, Lozano, Lubinda, Lucchetti, Luo, lv, Amin, Ma, Maass, Mabrok, Machairas, Machoy, Mafhoumi, Magdy Abd El Razek, Maghazachi, Mahadeshwara Prasad, Maharaj, Mahmoud, Mahmoudi, Majeed, Makram, Makris, Malasala, Maled, Malhotra, Malik, Malik, Malinga, Malta, Mamun, Manda, Manla, Mansour, Mansouri, Mansouri, Mansourian, Mansournia, Mantovani, Manu, Marateb, Maravilla, Marsh, Martinez, Martinez-Piedra, Martini, Martins-Melo, Martorell, Marx, Maryam, Mathangasinghe, Mathioudakis, Matozinhos, Mattumpuram, Maugeri, Maulik, Mayeli, Mazidi, Mazzotti, McGrath, McKee, McKowen, McLaughlin, McPhail, McPhail, Mechili, Mehmood, Mehmood, Mehrabani-Zeinabad, Mehrabi Nasab, Meier, Mejia-Rodriguez, Mekene Meto, Mekonnen, Menezes, Mengist, Mensah, Mensah, Mentis, Meo, Meretoja, Meretoja, Mersha, Mesfin, Mestrovic, Mettananda, Mettananda, Miazgowski, Micha, Michalek, Micheletti Gomide Nogueira de Sá, Miller, Mirarefin, Mirghafourvand, Mirica, Mirijello, Mirrakhimov, Mirshahi, Mirzaei, Mishra, Mishra, Mitchell, Mithra, Mittal, Moazen, Moberg, Mocciaro, Mohamadkhani, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohamed, Mohammadi, Mohammadi, Mohammadian-Hafshejani, Mohammadifard, Mohammed, Mohammed, Mohammed, Mohammed, Mokdad, Monasta, Mondello, Moni, Moodi Ghalibaf, Moore, Moradi, Moradi, Moraga, Morawska, Moreira, Morovatdar, Morrison, Morze, Mosaddeghi Heris, Mossialos, Motappa, Mougin, Mousavi, Msherghi, Mubarik, Muccioli, Mueller, Mulita, Mullany, Munjal, Murillo-Zamora, Murlimanju, Musina, Mustafa, Muthu, Muthupandian, Muthusamy, Muzaffar, Myung, Nafei, Nagarajan, Nagaraju, Nagel, Naghavi, Naghavi, Naik, Naik, Nainu, Nair, Najdaghi, Nakhostin Ansari, Nanavaty, Nangia, Narasimha Swamy, Narimani Davani, Nascimento, Nascimento, Nashwan, Natto, Nauman, Navaratna, Naveed, Nayak, Nayak, Ndejjo, Nduaguba, Negash, Negoi, Negoi, Nejadghaderi, Nejjari, Nematollahi, Nepal, Neupane, Ng, Nguefack-Tsague, Ngunjiri, Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen Tran Minh, Niazi, Nicholson, Nie, Nikoobar, Nikpoor, Ningrum, Nnaji, Noman, Nomura, Noroozi, Norrving, Noubiap, Nri-Ezedi, Ntaios, Ntsekhe, Nunemo, Nurrika, Nutor, Oancea, O’Connell, Odetokun, O’Donnell, Oduro, Ogunfowokan, Ogunkoya, Oh, Okati-Aliabad, Okeke, Okekunle, Okonji, Olagunju, Olasupo, Olatubi, Oliveira, Oliveira, Olorukooba, Olufadewa, Olusanya, Olusanya, Oluwafemi, Omar, Omar Bali, Omer, Ong, Ong, Onwujekwe, Onyedibe, Oppong, Ordak, Orish, Ornello, Orpana, Ortiz, Ortiz-Prado, Osman, Ostroff, Osuagwu, Otoiu, Otstavnov, Otstavnov, Ouyahia, Owolabi, Oyeyemi, Oyeyemi, Pacheco-Barrios, Padron-Monedero, Padubidri, Pal, Palicz, Pan, Pan, Pana, Panda, Panda-Jonas, Pandey, Pandi-Perumal, Pangaribuan, Pantazopoulos, Pantea Stoian, Papadopoulou, Parent, Parija, Parikh, Park, Park, Parsons, Pashaei, Pasovic, Passera, Patil, Patoulias, Patthipati, Paudel, Pawar, Pazoki Toroudi, Peden, Pedersini, Peng, Pensato, Pepito, Peprah, Peprah, Peres, Perianayagam, Perico, Perna, Pesudovs, Petcu, Petermann-Rocha, Pham, Philip, Phillips, Pickering, Pierannunzio, Pigeolet, Pigott, Piracha, Piradov, Pisoni, Piyasena, Plass, Plotnikov, Poddighe, Polkinghorne, Poluru, Pond, Popovic, Porru, Postma, Poudel, Pour-Rashidi, Pourshams, Pourtaheri, Prabhu, Prada, Pradhan, Pradhan, Prasad, Prates, Purnobasuki, Purohit, Puvvula, Qasim, Qattea, Qazi, Qian, Qiu, Rabiee Rad, Radfar, Radhakrishnan, Radhakrishnan, Raeisi Shahraki, Rafferty, Rafiei, Raggi, Raghav, Raheem, Rahim, Rahim, Rahimifard, Rahimi-Movaghar, Rahman, Rahman, Rahmani, Rahmani, Rahmanian, Rahmanian, Rahmanian, Rahmati, Rahmawaty, Raimondo, Rajaa, Rajendran, Rajput, Ramadan, Ramasamy, Ramasubramani, Ramazanu, Ramteke, Rana, Rana, Ranabhat, Rane, Rani, Ranta, Rao, Rao, Rao, Rao, Rasella, Rashedi, Rashedi, Rashidi, Rashidi, Rasouli-Saravani, Ratan, Rathnaiah Babu, Rauniyar, Rautalin, Rawaf, Rawaf, Rawassizadeh, Razo, Reda, Reddy, Redwan, Reifels, Reitsma, Remuzzi, Reshmi, Resnikoff, Restaino, Reyes, Rezaei, Rezaei, Rezaei, Rezaeian, Rhee, Riaz, Ribeiro, Rickard, Robinson-Oden, Rodrigues, Rodrigues, Rodriguez, Roever, Romadlon, Ronfani, Rosauer, Roshandel, Rostamian, Rotimi, Rout, Roy, Roy, Rubagotti, Ruela, de, Rumisha, Runghien, Russo, Ruzzante, Saad, Saber, Saber-Ayad, Sabour, Sacco, Sachdev, Sachdeva, Saddik, Saddler, Sadee, Sadeghi, Sadeghi, Sadeghi Majd, Saeb, Saeed, Safari, Safi, Safi, Sagar, Sagoe, Saheb Sharif-Askari, Saheb Sharif-Askari, Sahebkar, Sahoo, Sahu, Saif, Sajid, Sakshaug, Salam, Salamati, Salami, Salaroli, Salehi, Salehi, Salem, Salem, Salihu, Salimi, Salum, Samadi Kafil, Samadzadeh, Samodra, Samuel, Samy, Sanabria, Sanjeev, Sanna, Santomauro, Santric-Milicevic, Sarasmita, Saraswathy, Saravanan, Saravi, Sarikhani, Sarmiento-Suárez, Sarode, Sarode, Sartorius, Sarveazad, Sathian, Sattin, Sawhney, Saya, Sayeed, Sayeed, Sayyah, Schinckus, Schmidt, Schuermans, Schumacher, Schutte, Schwarzinger, Schwebel, Schwendicke, Selvaraj, Semreen, Senthilkumaran, Serban, Serre, Sethi, Shafie, Shah, Shah, Shah, Shah, Shahbandi, Shaheen, Shahid, Shahid, Shahsavari, Shahwan, Shaikh, Shaikh, Shalash, Sham, Shamim, Shams-Beyranvand, Shamshirgaran, Shamsi, Shanawaz, Shankar, Sharfaei, Sharifan, Sharifi-Rad, Sharma, Sharma, Sharma, Shastry, Shavandi, Shehabeldine, Shehzadi, Sheikh, Shen, Shetty, Shetty, Shetty, Shiani, Shiferaw, Shigematsu, Shin, Shiri, Shittu, Shiue, Shivakumar, Shivarov, Shool, Shorofi, Shrestha, Shrestha, Shuja, Shuval, Si, Siddig, Silva, Silva, Silva, Silva, Simpson, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Singh, Sinto, Sivakumar, Siwal, Skhvitaridze, Skou, Sleet, Sobia, Soboka, Socea, Solaimanian, Solanki, Solanki, Soliman, Somayaji, Song, Sorensen, Soriano, Soyiri, Spartalis, Spearman, Spencer, Sreeramareddy, Stachteas, Stafford, Stanaway, Stanikzai, Stein, Stein, Steinbeis, Steiner, Steinke, Steiropoulos, Stockfelt, Stokes, Straif, Stranges, Subedi, Subramaniyan, Suleman, Suliankatchi Abdulkader, Sundström, Sunkersing, Sunnerhagen, Suresh, Swain, Szarpak, Szeto, Tabaee Damavandi, Tabarés-Seisdedos, Tabatabaei, Tabatabaei Malazy, Tabatabaeizadeh, Tabatabai, Tabche, Tabish, Tadakamadla, Taheri Abkenar, Taheri Soodejani, Taherkhani, Taiba, Takahashi, Talaat, Tamuzi, Tan, Tang, Tat, Taveira, Tefera, Tehrani-Banihashemi, Temesgen, Temsah, Teramoto, Terefa, Teye-Kwadjo, Thakur, Thangaraju, Thankappan, Thapar, Thayakaran, Thirunavukkarasu, Thomas, Thomas, Tian, Tichopad, Ticoalu, Tiruye, Tobe-Gai, Tolani, Tolossa, Tonelli, Topor-Madry, Topouzis, Touvier, Tovani-Palone, Trabelsi, Tran, Tran, Tran, Trico, Trihandini, Troeger, Tromans, Truyen, Tsatsakis, Tsermpini, Tumurkhuu, Udoakang, Udoh, Ullah, Ullah, Ullah, Umair, Umakanthan, Unim, Unnikrishnan, Upadhyay, Urso, Usman, Vaithinathan, Vakili, Valenti, Valizadeh, Van den Eynde, van Donkelaar, Varga, Vart, Varthya, Vasankari, Vasic, Vaziri, Venketasubramanian, Verghese, Verma, Veroux, Verras, Vervoort, Villafañe, Villalobos-Daniel, Villani, Villanueva, Vinayak, Violante, Vlassov, Vo, Vollset, Volovat, Vos, Vujcic, Waheed, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wang, Wanjau, Waqas, Ward, Waris, Wassie, Weerakoon, Weintraub, Weiss, Weiss, Weldetinsaa, Wells, Wen, Wiangkham, Wickramasinghe, Wilkerson, Willeit, Wilson, Wong, Wongsin, Wozniak, Wu, Wu, Wu, Wu, Xia, Xiao, Xu, Xu, Xu, Yadav, Yaghoubi, Yamagishi, Yang, Yano, Yaribeygi, Yasufuku, Ye, Yesodharan, Yesuf, Yezli, Yi, Yiğit, Yigzaw, Yin, Yip, Yismaw, Yon, Yonemoto, You, Younis, Yousefi, Yu, Yu, Zadey, Zadnik, Zakham, Zaki, Zakzuk, Zamagni, Zaman, Zandieh, Zanghì, Zar, Zare, Zarimeidani, Zastrozhin, Zeng, Zhai, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, Zhao, Zhao, Zhao, Zhao, Zhao, Zhong, Zhou, Zhou, Zhou, Zhu, Zhu, Zhu, Ziaeian, Ziafati, Zielińska, Zimsen, Zoghi, Zoller, Zumla, Zyoud, Zyoud, Murray and Gakidou2024).

Uncertainty analysis

Monte Carlo simulation modelling techniques were used to present uncertainty ranges around point estimates, reflecting the main sources of sampling uncertainty in the calculations, using Ersatz software version 1.35 (Barendregt, Reference Barendregt2017) as an add-in to Excel. For the child maltreatment multiple exposure categories, a Dirichlet distribution (a conjugate of the multinomial distribution) was specified that ensured that the returned random deviates (with binomial distributions) always sum to 1. For the RR input variables, we used the Ersatz random function ErRelativeRisk (Barendregt, Reference Barendregt2010). For each of the output variables (namely attributable burden as a percentage of total burden in Australia), 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs) were calculated bounded by the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles of 2,000 iteration values generated.