INTRODUCTION
Book 9 of the Iliad opens with the Greek camp in crisis: the Trojans are positioned outside the Achaean wall and await the break of dawn to set fire to the ships. For the second time in the poem, Agamemnon proposes that the Greeks abandon the expedition. Agamemnon’s speech is met with silence. At last, Diomedes speaks and chastises the leader of the Achaeans for his cowardice, proposing that Agamemnon leave with his ships while the others remain to fight. Diomedes’ speech receives the shouting applause of all the Achaeans. Nestor then rises to speak, however, and appears to give the young hero a lesson in public discourse, presenting himself as the elder statesman and pointing out that Diomedes, despite being the best speaker among his peers, has not reached the τέλος μύθων (9.56).Footnote 1 Nestor finishes his speech by commanding the Achaeans to ready their meals and place a sentry at the ditch and asking Agamemnon to host a dinner for the elder statesmen, where he will propose the embassy to Achilles.
While Nestor’s speech expresses general approval of Diomedes’ rebuke of Agamemnon, many scholars believe that the interaction exposes Diomedes’ incompetence as a public speaker.Footnote 2 More charitable interpretations portray Diomedes as an exemplary student of muthoi, or authoritative speeches, who improves by leaps and bounds in his rhetorical ability over the course of the poem.Footnote 3 However, these interpretations are still contingent on the characterization of Diomedes as an inexperienced speaker who is often at a loss for words, speaks out of turn and has poor command of speech genres.Footnote 4 This article interrogates the discrepancy between the positive reception of Diomedes’ speeches by the Achaeans and their negative reception by scholars,Footnote 5 who tend to emphasize Diomedes’ youth and his relationship with his absent father. Diomedes’ speeches always seem to hit their mark and demonstrate the hero’s grasp of the situation at hand and the larger narrative of the Iliad. It is Diomedes, for example, who remarks that the embassy to Achilles was doomed from the start and that the estranged hero will return on his own terms.Footnote 6
This article examines the contexts of Diomedes’ speeches in the Iliad and provides a new reading of the Homeric formula ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ μɛτέɛιπɛ, which is often used to argue that Diomedes’ speeches are late interjections. A reading of this formula in the wider context of the Iliad reveals that Diomedes’ delayed responses follow the procedures of the Iliadic assembly, which dictate that younger and lower-ranking chieftains allow the higher ranking γέροντɛς,Footnote 7 like Nestor and Agamemnon, to speak before them. Their answers, too, must match their status. Junior statesmen can only respond to proposals, while elder statesmen have the right to set the agenda and give unilateral commands to the Achaean host. I argue that by the end of Book 9 Diomedes has become a full-fledged γέρων and no longer must wait his turn to speak.
SPEECH IN THE ILIADIC ASSEMBLY
Before examining the speeches of Diomedes, it is worthwhile to establish a baseline for the procedures of deliberative speech in the poem. In the Iliad, counsel and debate take place in the council of elders (βουλή), the Greek and Trojan assembly (ἀγορή) and in ad hoc assemblies on the battlefield.Footnote 8 Speech in the council largely mirrors the procedures of the assembly, but the deliberative body is restricted to the γέροντɛς, the primary decision-makers of the Greek camp. Councils are carried out beside Nestor’s ship (2.53–4), in Agamemnon’s huts (7.313, 9.89–90), outside the trench (10.198–9) and in indeterminate locations of the camp (14.27–9).Footnote 9
The assembly that opens Book 19 of the Iliad provides an exemplary model for collective deliberation. Here, Achilles calls an assembly to renounce his wrath at the behest of his mother. The Achaeans gather and sit down (κὰδ … ἵζοντο, 19.50),Footnote 10 likely before Odysseus’ ships, the social centre of the Achaean camp.Footnote 11Achilles then rises to speak (τοȋσι δ᾽ ἀνιστάμɛνος μɛτέφη, 19.55)Footnote 12 and addresses Agamemnon. He renounces his anger and orders Agamemnon to rally the troops (ὄτρυνον πόλɛμόνδɛ κάρη κομόωντας Ἀχαιούς, 19.69). The assembled members respond to the speech (ἐχάρησαν ἐϋκνήμιδɛς Ἀχαιοί, 19.74).Footnote 13 If the proposal requires modification, as is the case here, another speaker rises and addresses the assembly (τοȋσι δὲ καὶ μɛτέɛιπɛ, 19.76).Footnote 14 Agamemnon proposes that Achilles wait while the gifts he promised are brought from his ship (19.140–4). Achilles replies (τὸν δ᾽ ἀπαμɛιβόμɛνος προσέφη, 19.145) that there is no time for delay or ceremony and that they should return to battle straightaway (νῦν δὲ μνησώμɛθα χάρμης | αἶψα μάλ’, 19.148–9). It is at this moment that a third speaker, Odysseus, intervenes (τὸν δ᾽ ἀπαμɛιβόμɛνος προσέφη, 19.154). He points out that it is not wise to send the troops to battle before they have eaten and asks Achilles to order them to ready their meals. In the meantime, Achilles is to allow Agamemnon to bring the promised gifts and swear an oath that he never slept with Briseis. Agamemnon addresses Odysseus (τὸν δ᾽ αὖτɛ προσέɛιπɛν, 19.184), expresses his desire to make an oath, orders Odysseus to select youths to fetch the gifts promised the day before and makes an indirect command for Talthybius to ready a boar for sacrifice to Zeus and Helios (καπρὸν ἑτοιμασάτω, 19.197). Achilles replies to Agamemnon (τὸν δ᾽ ἀπαμɛιβόμɛνος προσέφη, 19.198) and stands his ground: they should postpone the ceremony, fight on an empty stomach (νήστιας ἀκμήνους, 19.207) and prepare a great meal after Patroclus has been avenged.
Odysseus intervenes once again (τὸν δ᾽ ἀπαμɛιβόμɛνος προσέφη, 19.215), this time citing his intellectual superiority on account of his age (19.216–19). He addresses Achilles’ main concern, the need to mourn his fallen companion, by arguing that it is not possible to grieve by fasting in war when so many die in combat every day.Footnote 15 Agamemnon’s proposal stands. After Odysseus’ speech, youths are sent to Agamemnon’s hut to retrieve the gifts and the women promised, Briseis among them. The gifts are placed in the middle of the assembly (τὰ μὲν ἐν μέσσῃ ἀγορῇ θέσαν, 19.249). Agamemnon now stands (ἂν δ᾽ Αγαμέμνων | ἵστατο, 19.249–50) and makes his oath while everyone sits in silence (19.255–6). The oath made and the boar sacrificed, Achilles rises to speak (ἀνστὰς … μɛτηύδα, 19.269). He shifts the blame for the conflict to Zeus and sends the Achaeans to eat in preparation for war (νῦν δ᾽ ἔρχɛσθ᾽ ἐπὶ δɛȋπνον, ἵνα ξυνάγωμɛν Ἄρηα, 19.275). Achilles’ authoritative command effectively ends the assembly (ὣς ἄρ᾽ ἐφώνησɛν, λῦσɛν δ᾽ ἀγορὴν αἰψηρήν, 19.276).
The assembly in Book 19 is what an Iliadic assembly should be.Footnote 16 It follows all the procedures of public discourse from the calling of the assembly to its disbandment. The speaker that calls for the assembly stands and makes a proposal, which is evaluated by the collective body and the chief decision-makers. If the proposal is problematic, one of the γέροντɛς, in this case Odysseus, makes a reply. Generally, the formula used is τὸν δ᾽ ἀπαμɛιβόμɛνος προσέφη, which surfaces multiple times in this passage. Counterproposals can be made, and, once a consensus has been reached, an order is given in the form of a command or a hortatory subjunctive. Finally, the assembly is disbanded, and the proposal is put into action. It is of note that only elder statesmen, Agamemnon, Achilles, Nestor and Odysseus, participate in the actual modification or rebuttal of the proposal. Moreover, no resolution is passed without the final approval of the governing authority. In the Achaean camp this authority is most often Agamemnon. In Book 19, it is Achilles.
THE FORMULA ΟΨE ΔE ΔΗ ΜEΤEEΙΠE
The formula ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ μɛτέɛιπɛ refers to a speech act uttered after a long pause in deliberation. It is attested five times in the Iliad and once in a modified form with the verb μɛτέɛιπɛ at verse end. It is intimately linked with the figure of Diomedes, whose speeches it introduces three times (7.399, 9.31, 9.696). The formula also introduces speeches by Athena (8.30), Phoenix (9.432) and Menelaus (7.94). ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ μɛτέɛιπɛ is always preceded by another formula—ὣς ἔφαθ’, οἱ δ’ ἄρα πάντɛς ἀκὴν ἐγένοντο σιωπῇ, ‘Thus he spoke, and then everyone became hushed with silence’.Footnote 17 The reason for the silence is often explained by another formulaic phrase, such as the enjambed ‘astonished at his muthos, for he had spoken rather sternly’ (8.29, 9.432, 9.694) or ‘and for a long time the sons of the Achaeans were silent in grief’ (9.30, 9.695). The latter formula signals total despair at the muthos uttered,Footnote 18 such as after Agamemnon’s second proposal to flee Troy and the report of the failed embassy to Achilles. The phrase ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ μɛτέɛιπɛ thus serves to highlight dramatic anticipation after a long pause, an unusual situation in the assembly.Footnote 19
The operative word in the formula is the adverb ὀψέ, rendered by Butler as ‘till at last’, by Murray as ‘at length’ and by Lattimore as ‘at long last’. Note that the sense ‘late’ or ‘too late’, which Martin and other critics seem to give to the word,Footnote 20 is missing in these translations. In Homer ὀψέ is the antonym of αὐτίκα (‘immediately,’ ‘at once’),Footnote 21 as made explicit by the antithesis of the two words in Agamemnon’s speech to Menelaus after Pandarus breaks the truce (4.160–2):
ɛἴ πɛρ γάρ τɛ καὶ αὐτίκ᾽ Ὀλύμπιος οὐκ ἐτέλɛσσɛν,
ἔκ τɛ καὶ ὀψὲ τɛλɛȋ, σύν τɛ μɛγάλῳ ἀπέτɛισαν
σὺν σφῇσιν κɛφαλῇσι γυναιξί τɛ καὶ τɛκέɛσσιν.
For even if the Olympian has not fulfilled [the oath] at once,
he eventually brings it to pass, and they atone for it with a great price,
with their heads, and their wives, and their children.
Agamemnon is not saying that Zeus fulfils his oaths ‘late’ or ‘too late’, but rather that, though punishments may not happen immediately, accounts will ultimately be rendered. The base meaning of ὀψέ is ‘later’, ‘eventually’ or ‘not at the present’. The meaning is relative rather than absolute, as borne out by its Homeric derivatives, especially the adjective ὄψιμος and the compounds ὀψιτέλɛστος (2.325) and ὀψίγονος (3.353, 7.87, 16.31), the latter of which means ‘born after’ not ‘late born’.Footnote 22 The absolute meaning ‘late’ and ‘too late’ is a post-Homeric development.
DIOMEDES’ SPEECHES IN THE ILIAD
Diomedes has moments of verbal prominence outside of the assembly and the council, notably, his famous exchange with Glaucus in Book 6, but he does not participate in collective decision-making until after his aristeia. His first muthos in the assembly takes place in response to the Trojan messenger Idaeus, sent by Paris and Priam to offer material recompense for Helen and negotiate a daylong truce to allow for the burial of the dead (7.385–97). The problem with Idaeus’ proposal is not the truce, which had already been proposed by Nestor and approved by the Achaeans (7.324–44), but rather the offer of payment for Helen, with which even the Trojans take issue (7.393). Surprisingly, there is no immediate response from Menelaus, Agamemnon or Nestor, perhaps suggesting that accepting payment for Helen is not off the table.Footnote 23 After a long silence Diomedes speaks (ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ μɛτέɛιπɛ), answering only the first proposal: ‘Let no one accept the possessions of Alexander now nor Helen. But it is known even to him with the least foresight, that the bounds of destruction have already been fastened for the Trojans’ (7.400–3). The result is the shouting assent of all the Achaeans (οἱ δ’ ἄρα πάντɛς ἐπίαχον υἷɛς Ἀχαιῶν, 7.403). It appears that Diomedes can read the crowd better than the other chieftains.
Diomedes’ second speech in the assembly (9.31–49), discussed in the introduction, comes after Agamemnon proposes that the Achaeans abandon camp and return home with their ships. His speech is met with silence and grief (δὴν δ᾽ ἄνɛῳ ἦσαν τɛτιηότɛς υἷɛς Ἀχαιῶν, 9.30). Diomedes eventually speaks and chastises Agamemnon for his weakness and hypocrisy (9.32–5), alluding to Agamemnon’s criticism of Diomedes in the epipôlêsis where he claims that Tydeus fathered a son better than him at counsel, but lesser in war (4.399–400),Footnote 24 a statement rendered patently false by Diomedes’ aristeia. His speech is met with the shouting applause of the Achaeans.Footnote 25
There are some formal patterns in these two speeches that typify Diomedes as a speaker. First, both of Diomedes’ speeches are prefaced by the formula ὣς ἔφαθ᾽, οἳ δ᾽ ἄρα πάντɛς ἀκὴν ἐγένοντο σιωπῇ, an expression that denotes partial or whole rejection of the proposal given and is the functional opposite of the formula ‘they heard and obeyed’.Footnote 26 There is, of course, a difference between a speech made in the assembly by an Achaean chieftain and a proposal made by a Trojan herald. Idaeus’ proposal cannot be simply heard and obeyed since it is not issued by a Greek leader. Here the silence formula hints at a possible division in the Achaean camp and a clear breakdown of the speaking chain of command among the γέροντɛς. It is unclear who should respond. Should it be Helen’s husband or the supreme leader of the Achaean host? Diomedes awaits a response and answers Idaeus’ proposal once it becomes clear that neither Menelaus nor Agamemnon is willing to speak. The bT scholia, apparently neglected by close readers of this passage, corroborates this interpretation. The scholia note on 7.399 that Diomedes awaited the decision of the Atreids and eventually rises to voice his opinion, leaning on his increased social status after his aristeia (ἀνέμɛνɛ γὰρ τὴν τῶν Ἀτρɛιδῶν γνώμην· ὡς πɛπιθὼς δὲ τῇ ἀριστɛίᾳ ἀνέστη).Footnote 27 Second, both of Diomedes’ speeches are met with the approval of the Achaeans, as expressed by the formula ‘Thus he spoke, and all the sons of the Achaeans shouted in applause’ (7.403, 9.50). In Book 7, the sentiment of Diomedes’ response to Idaeus is turned into policy by Agamemnon (᾽Ιδαȋ᾽, ἤτοι μῦθον Ἀχαιῶν αὐτὸς ἀκούɛις | ὥς τοι ὑποκρίνονται· ἐμοὶ δ᾽ ἐπιανδάνɛι οὕτως, 7.406–7).
The proposals to receive payment for Helen or to abandon camp appear at crucial junctures in the poem that could seriously alter the course of the narrative,Footnote 28 and they require decisive action. It is here that Diomedes speaks. There are only a few passages of this structure in the Iliad that do not pertain to Diomedes. The first comes after Hector proposes a duel between Menelaus and Paris for Helen and her possessions. Menelaus’ speech is preceded by a silence that heightens the drama (3.95). However, Menelaus does not—in fact, cannot—delay his response. His honour and position in the Greek camp depend on an immediate reply (τοȋσι δὲ καὶ μɛτέɛιπɛ, 3.96).
Other situations are less compromising and do not demand an automatic response, such as Hector’s challenge of an Achaean champion in Book 7, which is met with dead silence: ‘Thus he spoke, and everyone grew hushed in silence. For they were ashamed to refuse, but they were afraid to accept’ (7.92–3). Menelaus eventually stands to speak (ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ Μɛνέλαος ἀνίστατο καὶ µɛτέɛιπɛν, 7.94), chastising his comrades and volunteering to fight Hector himself. While his social standing is not directly on the line in Hector’s challenge, Menelaus feels that he must fight if no one else is willing since it is on his account that the Greeks are at Troy. His response, however, is precipitated. Everyone knows that he is no match for Hector, as the poet makes clear: ‘Then, Menelaus, would the end of life have appeared for you at the hands of Hector since he was far stronger’ (7.104–5). Agamemnon seizes his brother and forces him to back down on the grounds that he is being foolish (ἀφραίνɛις, 7.109). Menelaus should not have spoken. In fact, every response to the silence formula is characterized by inefficacy: Phoenix’s attempt to convince Achilles to renounce his anger (9.430–3), Dolon’s offering to spy on the Greek camp (10.313–19) and Euryalus’ decision to box Epeius in the funeral games (23.676).
The only cases in which the silence formula is followed by an effective response are the speeches of Diomedes and Athena. This is not a coincidence, as both Diomedes and his patron goddess are the embodiment of wisdom, valour and youth. Athena’s speech comes after Zeus threatens to punish any god that intervenes in his plan to help the Trojans. The gods fall silent, astonished at his muthos. At last, Athena speaks, accepting his injunction with the qualification that they still be able to give counsel to the Achaeans so that fewer of them will perish (8.28–30). Athena is not the only partisan of the Greek cause, and one might expect that Poseidon or Hera, Zeus’s siblings and social peers, would be the ones to intervene.Footnote 29 As is to be expected, Athena succeeds in her plea (8.38–40; cf. 22.183–5).Footnote 30
Let us return to Martin’s claim that ‘[Diomedes’] assembly speeches are introduced as “late” interjections (7.399, 9.31, 9.696), a trait never noted with older heroes’.Footnote 31 First, the formula ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ μɛτέɛιπɛ does in fact introduce the speech of two elder statesmen in the Iliad: Phoenix in the Embassy to Achilles (9.430–3) and Menelaus in response to Hector’s challenge (7.92–4).Footnote 32 Second, neither elder statesman is successful in his aim. Phoenix fails to convince Achilles to join the fray, and Menelaus is rebuked and passed over in favour of a mightier warrior. Unlike their elders, Diomedes and Athena always hit the mark with their speeches. Zeus allows Athena to counsel the Greeks, and Diomedes garners applause for his speeches. Their responses, then, far from being belated interjections, are delivered with impeccable timing.
NESTOR AND THE ΤEΛΟΣ ΜϒΘΩΝ
If Diomedes’ speeches in the assembly receive acclaim by the deliberative body, why does Nestor tell Diomedes that he has not reached the τέλος μύθων in his first speech in Book 9? A recent trend is to attribute this fault to his misuse of the genre of reproach to express his dissent in the assembly.Footnote 33 Christensen, for example, claims that by reprimanding Agamemnon, ‘Diomedes’ speech creates a unity defined against Agamemnon, at its most stark, a unity that involves only him and Sthenelos: in short, a bitter splitting of the already embattled Achaian polity.’ It is important to imagine, however, what the alternative might be. In Book 9, Agamemnon proposes abandoning the expedition once again, and, this time, the odds are stacked against the Achaeans. Hector and the Trojans have pitched camp outside the Achaean wall and await the opportunity to make good on their promise to set fire to the ships. It is inconceivable that the assembly could be properly dissolved before an answer to Agamemnon’s proposal has been made. To prevent a recurrence of the debacle of the trial of the troops in Book 2, the Achaeans must be able to rally around a leader. Agamemnon has shown himself incapable of filling that role, and Diomedes, the best Achaean warrior in Achilles’ absence, shows himself to be that leader. While neikos is not the speech genre most associated with the assembly, it is not foreign to collective deliberation. Roisman points out that even Nestor uses neikos in the assembly to great effect.Footnote 34 Diomedes’ rebuke of Agamemnon at this moment is opportune since he is voicing disagreement with an Achaean elder in the assembly and must establish his right to dissent.Footnote 35 Diomedes has won this right with his spear, and he makes his dissent in public because he knows that the Achaeans, including the elder chieftains, are on his side.Footnote 36
If the fault with Diomedes’ speech is not the illocutionary aspect cited by Christensen,Footnote 37 we must still explain why it fails to reach the τέλος μύθων. The D-scholia suggest that the phrase alludes to the incompleteness of Diomedes’ speech, namely, the failure to give the orders for making dinner and setting up the sentry, which Nestor’s speech supplies.Footnote 38 Christensen dismisses this explanation as ‘a little reductive’;Footnote 39 however, the scholia may be right. For what Nestor does is make a declaration and go through everything (ἐξɛίπω καὶ πάντα διίξομαι, 9.61). The scholiast’s reading is supported by another Iliadic passage. As discussed above, Odysseus intervenes in the assembly in Book 19 and advises Achilles to (1) permit the troops to ready their meals before and (2) accept the gifts promised by Agamemnon, as well as an oath that he never mounted Briseis’ bed. Odysseus’ speech provides reasoning for the troops eating before engaging in combat and lays out a plan for further action. Agamemnon praises it by saying that he has gone through and enumerated everything the right way (ἐν μοίρῃ γὰρ πάντα διίκɛο καὶ κατέλɛξας, 19.186). This is exactly what Nestor purports to do in Book 9. His speech is not a rebuttal or modification of Diomedes’ reply; it is a supplement. Nestor’s main contribution, then, is the command to obey the night, fix meals and set guards at the ditch.
Hence the main fault with Diomedes’ speech is that, even though it constitutes an effective reply to the question of whether the Achaeans should abandon the expedition, it is not actionable. Unlike Nestor, Diomedes does not make a proposal of the πɛιθώμɛθα-type.Footnote 40 The purpose of Nestor’s speech is to turn the deliberation between Agamemnon and Diomedes into policy. This is the prerogative of the elder statesman, and Diomedes is not an elder statesman just yet. Diomedes’ subsequent speeches respond explicitly to Nestor’s critique, or invitation perhaps,Footnote 41 and show something much closer to a τέλος μύθων.
DIOMEDES THE ELDER
Diomedes’ next speech takes place after the embassy returns to report its failure to convince Achilles to rejoin the fray and his plan to sail home the next day (9.693–711). The report has the same effect as Agamemnon’s earlier proposal to abandon the expedition. There is silence and there is grief. Once again, the elder statesmen fail to address the situation. At last, Diomedes makes a response (9.696). The speech begins with a milder address to Agamemnon, ‘Son of Atreus, most glorious Agamemnon, lord of men’ (9.697). While criticizing Agamemnon’s decision to send an embassy, Diomedes also allays the anxiety of the chieftains by offering hope that Achilles will return on his own. Most importantly, he offers a plan of action for the night and the following day. They will go to bed, partake of food and drink, and prepare to fight the next morning. The verb used for the command is πɛιθώμɛθα ‘let us obey’ (9.704), the mark of an executive order uttered by an authoritative speaker.Footnote 42 This speech earns the praise of all the chieftains (ὣς ἔφαθ᾽, οἵ δ᾽ ἄρα πάντɛς ἐπῄνησαν βασιλῆɛς, 9.710 = 7.344).
Elmer has drawn attention to the importance of the verb ἐπαινɛȋν in collective decision-making in the Iliad. According to him, it is ‘the most efficient reception formula, the one that indicates the establishment of a true consensus’.Footnote 43 Yet, as Elmer notes, ‘This consensus … is a limited one, representing only the collective will of the council elders.’Footnote 44 Limited as this consensus may be, receiving the ἔπαινος of the chieftains has enormous implications for Diomedes’ standing among the Achaean elders. As noted earlier, Diomedes has already established himself as a man of counsel in the assembly, where he receives the shouting praise of the Achaeans (7.403 = 9.50). What he is missing—and what his speech at the end of Book 9 provides—is praise in the council of the elders. The only other speaker to receive ἔπαινος from all the βασιλῆɛς is Nestor himself, after his proposal to negotiate a truce to bury the dead and build a wall to protect the Achaean camp (7.344). Upon receiving ἔπαινος from all the chieftains, Diomedes sheds his status as a junior elder. He can subsequently speak without the need of a deferential pause and has the freedom to make proposals and commands.Footnote 45 This change is perhaps most evident in the formulas that introduce his speeches. While his first three speeches are introduced by the formula ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ μɛτέɛιπɛ, his next two are introduced by the formula τοȋσι δὲ καὶ μɛτέɛιπɛ (10.219 = 14.109).Footnote 46
Diomedes’ next speech comes in the Doloneia in response to Nestor’s proposal in an ad hoc council that a hero go behind enemy lines to gather intelligence (10.203–17). Nestor’s proposal is met with dramatic silence (10.218); Diomedes replies without taking a pause (τοȋσι δὲ καὶ μɛτέɛιπɛ, 10.219) and volunteers his services. The speech is that of a warrior and a man of counsel. For Diomedes does not merely undertake the mission; he also offers a significant modification to Nestor’s plan, the addition of a second man.Footnote 47 Diomedes’ appointment of Odysseus as his second proves decisive for the success of the mission.
The Trojan raid of the Achaean camp serves as the backdrop for Diomedes’ last speech in the Iliad.Footnote 48 Nestor finds Agamemnon, Diomedes and Odysseus, now injured, beside the ships (14.27–9). Agamemnon asks if Hector has made good on the promise to set fire to the Achaean fleet. Nestor reports that the wall has been breached and battle rages beside the ships; he then commands that they refrain from battle since they are wounded and cannot fight (14.61–3). For the third time, Agamemnon suggests that they abandon camp while they still can. Once again, he is met with reproof, this time from Odysseus, who delivers an effective neikos that brings Agamemnon to his senses. While Odysseus convinces Agamemnon that a retreat is impossible, he does not offer a solution for checking the Trojan onslaught. Agamemnon then makes a wish for someone with a better plan (τῆσδέ γ᾽ ἀμɛίνονα μῆτιν, 14.107). His request for someone ‘whether young or old’ (ἢ νέος ἠὲ παλαιός, 14.108) appears to be aimed at Diomedes, who has proven himself a man of counsel and now enjoys the same rank as the king of Pylos.Footnote 49
Agamemnon’s request for advice at this critical juncture in the narrative does not result in silence. He asks Diomedes for advice, and Diomedes gives it without hesitation. Just like his speech in the Doloneia, this speech is introduced by the formula τοȋσι δὲ καὶ μɛτέɛιπɛ (14.109). Diomedes prefaces his speech by excusing himself for his green age (καὶ μή τι κότῳ ἀγάσησθɛ ἕκαστος | οὕνɛκα δὴ γɛνɛῆφι νɛώτατός ɛἰμι μɛθ᾽ ὑμȋν, 14.111–12), probably in answer to Nestor’s remark in Book 9 (σɛȋο γɛραίτɛρος ɛὔχομαι ɛἶναι, 9.60). He pre-empts any possible dissent, a Nestorian tactic, by emphasizing his lineage and martial prowess (14.126–7), a response to Agamemnon’s speech in the epipôlêsis (4.399–400). Finally, he tenders his proposal: they must go to the battlefield, wounded as they are, and rally the troops (δɛῦτ’ ἴομɛν πόλɛμόνδɛ καὶ οὐτάμɛνοί πɛρ ἀνάγκῃ, 14.128). Diomedes’ advice is in direct opposition to Nestor’s suggestion that they do not re-enter battle (πόλɛμον δ’ οὐκ ἄμμɛ κɛλɛύω δύμɛναι, 14.62–3).Footnote 50 Diomedes’ speech is heard and obeyed (οἱ δ᾽ ἄρα τοῦ μάλα μὲν κλύον ἠδ᾽ ἐπίθοντο, 14.133) with Agamemnon leading the way (14.134). The formula ‘they heard and obeyed’ is the response that effective speakers with authority receive, namely, Priam (7.379), Nestor (9.79), Poseidon (14.378) and Achilles (23.54, 23.738).Footnote 51 Not only is Diomedes’ last major speech in the Iliad effective, but it artfully responds to previous criticisms levelled against him by Nestor and Agamemnon, the two chief elders of the Achaean camp. The use of the ‘they heard and obeyed’ formula signals Diomedes’ new status in the Achaean camp. He has proven himself one of the best warriors and Nestor’s equal in counsel.Footnote 52
CONCLUSION
This article has shown that, though characterized as a young speaker in the Iliad, Diomedes is neither inexperienced nor immature. While Diomedes has not achieved the status of a chief γέρων at the beginning of the poem, it is not for lack of aptitude. Scholars often overlook that Diomedes arrives at Troy with a proven track record of leadership and military success. As Sthenelus remarks, Diomedes led the epigonoi in the successful expedition against Thebes (4.404–10).
Whitman observed that the Iliad is especially interested in the figure of Diomedes, who, in Achilles’ absence, becomes, alongside Ajax, the most important warrior in the Achaean camp.Footnote 53 In effect, Diomedes does not just serve as foil to Achilles during his withdrawal from battle, but also as a model for the young hero. Part of the allure of Diomedes for the poets is his dynamism. He is an interloper in the tradition, who has not reached full status in the Achaean camp and, as such, can be shown to progress through the cursus honorum in both war and counsel without affecting the overarching plot of the poem.Footnote 54
From his first speech, Diomedes proves one of the most effective speakers in the Iliad. As the youngest of the γέροντɛς, his speeches afford us a glimpse into the decorum of collective decision-making in the poem, in which status conditions who can speak, when one can speak and what one can say. Agamemnon and Achilles, the γέροντɛς with the most authority, can call assemblies and ratify proposals. Nestor and Odysseus, who rank below these two heroes, can speak with freedom and offer proposals. Their speeches—especially those of Agamemnon, Nestor and Achilles—are characterized by certain features, such as the use of the hortative πɛιθώμɛθα and immediate obedience to their proposals (κλύον ἠδὲ πίθοντο).
The crisis in the Achaean camp precipitated by Achilles’ departure results in the breakdown of leadership among the Achaean elders, and Diomedes seizes this opportunity to gain seniority as a statesman. Because of his youth, he cannot simply depend on his wits and must follow the decorum of the assembly. First, he must establish his right to speak through martial excellence. In the beginning, he is restricted to responses and speaks only after it is evident that his elders have nothing to say. This is the significance of the formula ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ μɛτέɛιπɛ in relation to the speeches of Diomedes. His first speech is to a foreign ambassador, Idaeus, the second to Agamemnon. At Nestor’s prodding or invitation, he fulfils the τέλος μύθων by making a proposal of his own, which is met with the unanimous praise of the Greek chieftains. By the time of his last speech in Book 14, Diomedes has established himself as one of the chief councillors of the Achaean camp.
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