1 Andrew Rippin, Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (1990; 4th edn. London: Routledge, 2012). The wide diffusion of this textbook, which proceeds almost directly from the founding fathers of reformism (called “Modernists”) to the radical Islamists Sayyid Quṭb and Sayyid Abul Ala Mawdūdī, via Muḥammad Haykal and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, has helped perpetuate this vision.

2. Olivier Roy, Généalogie de l’islamisme (Paris: Hachette, 1995).

3. See, for example, the titles of Samer Akkach, ʿAbd al-Ghanī al-Nābulusī: Islam and the Enlightenment (Oxford: Oneworld, 2007); and Guy Sorman, Les enfants de Rifaa. Musulmans et modernes (Paris: Fayard, 2002).

4. Thomas Bauer, Die Kultur der Ambiguität. Eine andere Geschichte des Islams (Berlin: Verlag der Weltreligionen, 2011); and reviews by Bernard Heyberger, “De l’ambiguïté en islam,” in Revue de l’histoire des religions 3 (2012): 403–12; and Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen in Arabica 64, no. 1 (2017): 115–27. In a similar spirit, see Shahab Ahmad, What Is Islam? The Importance of Being Islamic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015). For a review comparing the two books, see Frank Griffel, “Contradictions and Lots of Ambiguity: Two New Perspectives on Premodern (and Postclassical) Islamic Societies,” Bustan: The Middle East Book Review 8, no. 1 (2017): 1–21.

5. Albert Habib Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (London: Oxford University Press, 1962).

6. This article will use the term “early modern history” for the period between the fifteenth and the eighteenth century, which for the Muslim world corresponds to the period of the three empires—Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman. The relationships between these empires were more significant for the religious history of Islam than the Muslim world’s relationships with Europe.

7. Islam, ed. Roberto Tottoli, vol. 3 of Le religioni e il mondo moderno, ed. Giovanni Filoramo (Turin: Einaudi, 2009).

8. Reinhard Schulze, Geschichte der islamischen Welt. Von 1900 bis zur Gegenwart (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2016). The first edition of 1994 was published in English in 2002, but there is no English version of this third, expanded edition.

9. Esther Peskes, Muḥammad b. ʿAbdalwahhāb (1703–92) im Widerstreit. Untersuchungen zur Rekonstruktion der Frühgeschichte der Wahhābīya (Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 1993).

10. In any case, very little research is translated into French anymore. The fiction of a multilingual, globalized intelligentsia where “everyone reads English” is usually powerful enough to make French publishers and universities recoil at the cost of high-quality translation.

11. Stefan Reichmuth, The World of Murtaḍā al-Zabīdī (1732–91): Life, Networks and Writings (Cambridge: Gibb Memorial Trust, 2009).

12. Denis Matringe, Thibaut d’Hubert, Alexandre Papas, Marc Toutant, Étienne Naveau, Jérôme Lentin, and Julien Dufour are notable exceptions.

13. For the best studies of “peripheral Islam,” see the works of Marc Gaborieau on India, Nicole Grandin on East Africa, Alexandre Popovic on the Balkans, Denys Lombard on Indonesia, and Yann Richard on Iran. On the social history of Sufi brotherhoods in Turkey and regions under Turkish rule, see works written or edited by Alexandre Popovic and Gilles Veinstein, Nathalie Clayer, and Thierry Zarcone. The most accessible work for the general reader is Alexandre Popovic and Gilles Veinstein, eds., Les Voies d’Allah. Les ordres mystiques dans l’Islam des origines à aujourd’hui (Paris: Fayard, 1996). On Sufism, see the many essay collections produced over the past twenty years by the Francophone research group founded by Michel Chodkiewicz and Denis Gril.

14. Régine Azria and Danièle Hervieu-Léger, eds., Dictionnaire des faits religieux (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 2010) contains no entry for Islam, although there are entries for judaïsme, catholicisme, and islamisme. In France, most textbooks on “The Middle East from 1876 to 1980” (the topic for the 2017–2018 agrégation exam to teach history at high school level or above) avoid Islam as such, mentioning religious history only in connection with non-Muslim minorities.

15. French scholars therefore have no choice but to consult Charles Kurzman, ed., Modernist Islam, 1840–1940: A Sourcebook (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); or Roxanne L. Euben and Muhammad Qasim Zaman, eds., Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought: Texts and Contexts from al-Bannā to Bin Laden (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009).

16. Anne-Laure Dupont, Ğurğī Zaydān (1861–1914). Écrivain réformiste et témoin de la Renaissance arabe (Damascus: Institut français du Proche-Orient, 2006).

17. Tilman Seidensticker, Islamismus. Geschichte, Vordenker, Organisationen (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2014).

18. On the notion of maṣlaḥa, see Felicitas Opwis, Maṣlaḥa and the Purpose of the Law: Islamic Discourse on Legal Change from the 4th/10th to 8th/14th Century (Leiden: Brill, 2010). Indigénat is generally used to describe a special system of administration applying to the native populations of the French colonies. Here, the word refers to an exotic, Orientalist fascination with a world and vocabulary assumed to be fundamentally different.

19. Khaled El-Rouayheb, Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015). As Stéphane Lacroix pointed out to me in a personal communication, seventeenth-century taḥqīq has little to do with the taḥqīqāt of today’s Salafists, “that is, as they understand the term, critical editions of ancient manuscripts whose hadith are then identified and listed. The term is interesting for its claim to scientificity (and therefore to modernity)—Salafists are obsessed with that claim.”

20. Roel Meijer, ed., Global Salafism: Islam’s New Religious Movement (London: Hurst, 2009); Bernard Rougier, ed., Qu’est-ce que le salafisme ? (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 2008); Stéphane Lacroix, Awakening Islam: The Politics of Religious Dissent in Contemporary Saudi Arabia [2010], trans. George Holoch (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011).

21. Henri Lauzière, “The Construction of Salafiyya: Reconsidering Salafism from the Perspective of Conceptual History,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 42, no. 3 (2010): 369–89.

22. Henri Laoust, “Le réformisme orthodoxe des ‘Salafiya’ et les caractères généraux de son orientation actuelle,” Revue des études islamiques 6 (1932): 175–224.

23. Reinhard Schulze, Islamischer Internationalismus im 20. Jahrhundert. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Islamischen Weltliga (Leiden: Brill, 1990).

24. Frank Griffel, “What Do We Mean by ‘Salafī’? Connecting Muḥammad ʿAbduh with Egypt’s Nūr Party in Islam’s Contemporary Intellectual History,” Die Welt des Islams 55, no. 2 (2015): 186–220; Henri Lauzière, “What We Mean Versus What They Meant by ‘Salafī’: A Reply to Frank Griffel,” Die Welt des Islams 56, no. 2 (2016): 89–96.

25. We do not know whether al-salaf al-ṣāliḥ refers solely to the Prophet and his Companions or whether it encompasses the Followers (the next generation), or indeed all Muslims from the first three centuries of Islam, as suggested by Muḥammad ʿAbduh.

26. In Hanbalism, a school of both law and theology, the choice was made to stick to the literal descriptions of God and his attributes found in the Quran and hadith. The believer must not seek to understand how those attributes came to be, or to metaphorically interpret the literal meaning of expressions referring to them (“the hand of God,” “his face,” and so forth), but nor must they succumb to anthropomorphism.

27. Anne-Laure Dupont and Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen, eds., “Débats intellectuels au Moyen-Orient dans l’entre-deux-guerres,” special issue, Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 95–98 (2002).

28. It is enough to read Ḥasan al-Bannā’s Memoirs to grasp the importance of al-Khaṭīb. See Werner Ende, Arabische Nation und islamische Geschichte. Die Umayyaden im Urteil arabischer Autoren des 20. Jahrhunderts (Beirut/Wiesbaden: Orient-Institut der Deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft/F. Steiner, 1977); and Rainer Brunner, Annäherung und Distanz. Schia, Azhar und die islamische Ökumene im 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin: K. Schwarz, 1996). For a revised and extended English edition, see Brunner, Islamic Ecumenism in the 20th Century: The Azhar and Shiism between Rapprochement and Restraint [1996], trans. Joseph Greenman (Leiden: Brill, 2004). See also Mehdi Sajid, Muslime im Zwischenkriegseuropa und die Dekonstruktion der Faszination vom Westen. Eine kritische Auseinandersetzung mit Šakīb Arslāns Artikeln in der ägyptischen Zeitschrift al-Fatḥ (1926–1935) (Berlin: EB-Verlag, 2015).

29. William L. Cleveland, Islam against the West: Shakib Arslan and the Campaign for Islamic Nationalism (Austin: University of Texas, 1985).

30. Henri Lauzière, The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016).

31. Bernard Haykel, “On the Nature of Salafi Thought and Action,” in Meijer, Global Salafism, 33–57.

32. Steven Duarte, “Contribution à une typologie des réformismes de l’islam : les critères distinctifs du ‘réformisme islamique,’” Arabica 63, no. 3/4 (2016): 294–323.

33. James McDougall, History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Charlotte Courreye, L’Algérie des oulémas. Une histoire de l’Algérie contemporaine (1931–1991) (Paris: Éditions de la Sorbonne, 2020).

34. Lacroix, Awakening Islam; Nabil Mouline, The Clerics of Islam: Religious Authority and Political Power in Saudi Arabia [2011], trans. Ethan S. Rundell (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014).

35. Ali Merad, “Les courants réformistes en Islam moderne,” in “Pensée et valeurs de l’Islam,” special issue, Cultures 4, no. 1 (1977): 108–28, here p. 108.

36. Gilbert Delanoue insisted on this point (personal communication, circa 1992): “Islamic reformism” does not exist, but there were reformists who tried to formulate solutions in a crisis situation.

37. Beth Baron, The Women’s Awakening in Egypt: Culture, Society, and the Press (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994); Margot Badran, Feminists, Islam, and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).

38. Umar Ryad, Islamic Reformism and Christianity: A Critical Reading of the Works of Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā and his Associates (1898–1935) (Leiden: Brill, 2009).

39. Marwa Elshakry, Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).

40. Dyala Hamzah, “L’intérêt général (maṣlaḥa ʿāmma) ou le triomphe de l’opinion. Fondation délibératoire (et esquisses délibératives) dans les écrits du publiciste syro-égyptien Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865–1935)” (PhD diss., EHESS/Freie Universität Berlin, 2008).

41. For an example of apologetic literature, see Tariq Ramadan, Aux sources du renouveau musulman. D’al-Afghānī à Hassan al-Bannā, un siècle de réformisme islamique (1998; repr. Lyon: Tawhid, 2002).

42. According to Muḥammad Kurd ʿAlī’s famous expression. See Joseph H. Escovitz, “‘He Was the Muḥammad ʿAbduh of Syria’: A Study of Ṭāhir al-Jazāʾirī and his Influence,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 18, no. 3 (1986): 293–310.

43. Nikki R. Keddie, Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn “al-Afghānī”: A Political Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).

44. Nadia Elissa-Mondeguer, “Al-Manār de 1925 à 1935 : la dernière décennie d’un engagement intellectuel,” Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 95–98 (2002): 205–26.

45. My thanks to the anonymous reader of this article who clarified that the last volume of Al-Manār (vol. 35) was the work of both Riḍā and al-Bannā: “Riḍā was still alive when the first two issues were published in the summer of 1935. His brother Muḥyī al-Dīn and his own older son Muḥammad Shafīʿ then published the next two issues in March 1936. After that, production stopped for three years until al-Bannā took over the reins of the journal after acquiring the operating license. He then published six additional issues, between July 1939 and September 1940, all as part of vol. 35.”

46. David Dean Commins, Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Itzchak Weismann, Taste of Modernity: Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus (Leiden: Brill, 2001); Thomas Eich, Abū l-Hudā al-Ṣayyādī. Eine Studie zur Instrumentalisierung sufischer Netzwerke und genealogischer Kontroversen im spätosmanischen Reich (Berlin: K. Schwarz, 2003).

47. Francine Costet-Tardieu, Un réformiste à l’université al-Azhar. Œuvre et pensée de Mustafā al-Marāghī (1881–1945) (Cairo/Paris: CEDEJ/Karthala, 2005).

48. On central Asia, see Stéphane A. Dudoignon and François Georgeon, eds., “Le réformisme musulman en Asie centrale. Du ‘premier renouveau’ à la soviétisation, 1788–1937,” special issue, Cahiers du monde russe 37, no. 1/2 (1996); Stéphane A. Dudoignon and Hisao Komatsu, eds., Islam in Politics in Russia and Central Asia: Early Eighteenth to Late Twentieth Century (London: Kegan Paul, 2001); Michael Kemper, Sufis und Gelehrte in Tatarien und Baschkirien, 1789–1889. Der islamische Diskurs unter russischer Herrschaft (Berlin: K. Schwarz, 1998); and Michael Kemper, Anke von Kügelgen, and Dmitriy Yermakov, eds., Muslim Culture in Russia and Central Asia from the 18th to the Early 20th Centuries, 3 vols. (Berlin: K. Schwarz, 1996, 1998, and 2000).

49. Barbara Daly Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982).

50. Marc Gaborieau, Alexandre Popovic, and Thierry Zarcone, eds., Naqshbandis. Cheminements et situation actuelle d’un ordre mystique musulman (Istanbul: Éd. Isis, 1990); Marc Gaborieau, Le Mahdi incompris. Sayyid Ahmad Barelwî (1786–1831) et le millénarisme en Inde (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2010); Michel Boivin, L’âghâ khân et les Khojah. Islam chiite et dynamiques sociales dans le sous-continent indien (1843–1954) (Paris: Karthala/IISMM, 2013).

51. McDougall, History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria.

52. Sabrina Mervin, Un réformisme chiite. Ulémas et lettrés du Ğabal ʿĀmil, actuel Liban-Sud, de la fin de l’Empire ottoman à l’indépendance du Liban (Paris/Beirut/Damascus: Karthala/CERMOC/IFEAD, 2000).

53. Ende, Arabische Nation und islamische Geschichte; Brunner, Annäherung und Distanz; Augustin Jomier, Islam, réforme et colonisation. Une histoire de l’ibadisme en Algérie (1882–1962) (Paris: Éditions de la Sorbonne, 2020).

54. Nile Green, Bombay Islam: The Religious Economy of the West Indian Ocean, 1840–1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

55. Michael Laffan, “A Sufi Century? The Modern Spread of the Sufi Orders in Southeast Asia,” in Global Muslims in the Age of Steam and Print, ed. James L. Gelvin and Nile Green (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 25–39.

56. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age.

57. Mark Sedgwick, Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).

58. Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych, The Mantle Odes: Arabic Praise Poems to the Prophet Muḥammad (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010).

59. Benjamin C. Fortna, Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Selçuk Akşin Somel, The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy and Discipline (Leiden: Brill, 2001); Iman Farag, ed.,“L’éducation en Égypte : les acteurs, les processus,” special issue, Égypte–Monde arabe 18/19 (1994); Gregory Starrett, Putting Islam to Work: Education, Politics, and Religious Transformation in Egypt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).

60. Itzchak Weismann, “Abū l-Hudā l-Ṣayyādī and the Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism,” Arabica 54, no. 4 (2007): 586–92. In his volume Abū l-Hudā al-Ṣayyādī, Eich expressed doubts about the accuracy of Weismann’s view.

61. Gilbert Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans dans l’Égypte du xix^e siècle (1798–1882) 2 vols. (Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 1982), introduction.

62. Christian W. Troll, Sayyid Ahmad Khan: A Reinterpretation of Muslim Theology (New Delhi: Vikas, 1978). In 1972—that is, between the two editions of Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age—Hourani’s interest in a different author and period than those he focused on in that work does indicate that his thought was evolving, but it also reflects 1970s enthusiasm for “neo-Sufism”—precisely one of the notions that Troll’s work called into question. See Albert Hourani, “Shaykh Khalid and the Naqshbandi Order,” in Islamic Philosophy and the Classical Tradition, ed. Samuel M. Stern, Albert H. Hourani, and Vivian Brown (Oxford: Cassirer, 1972), 89–101. For an overview, see Jens Hanssen and Max Weiss, eds., Arabic Thought beyond the Liberal Age: Towards an Intellectual History of the Nahḍa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017).

63. See Sabrina Alcorn Baron, Eric N. Lindquist, and Eleanor F. Shevlin, eds., Agent of Change: Print Culture Studies after Elizabeth L. Eisenstein (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), which qualifies Eisenstein’s classic interpretation of the links between printing and the Reformation in Europe in The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983; rev. ed. 2005).

64. Rachida Chih, Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen, and Rüdiger Seesemann, eds., Sufism, Literary Production, and Printing in the Nineteenth Century (Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2015).

65. Buṭrus Abu-Manneh, “The Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddidiyya in the Ottoman Lands in the Early 19th Century,” Die Welt des Islams 22, no. 1/4 (1982): 1–36; Abu-Manneh, “The Islamic Roots of the Gülhane Rescript,” Die Welt des Islams 34, no. 2 (1994): 173–203.

66. Thierry Zarcone, Mystiques, philosophes et francs-maçons en Islam. Rizâ Tevfîk, penseur ottoman (1868–1949), du soufisme à la confrérie (Istanbul/Paris: Institut français d’études anatoliennes d’Istanbul/Jean Maisonneuve, 1993).

67. Thierry Zarcone, La Turquie moderne et l’islam (Paris: Flammarion, 2004).

68. On ISIS chants, see Behnam T. Said, Hymnen des Jihads. Naschids im Kontext jihadistischer Mobilisierung (Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2016).

69. Mohammed H. Benkheira, L’amour de la Loi. Essai sur la normativité en Islam (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1997).

70. Hamit Bozarslan, Révolution et état de violence. Moyen-Orient, 2011–2015 (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2015).

71. Farhad Khosrokhavar, L’islamisme et la mort. Le martyre révolutionnaire en Iran (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1995).

72. Alphonse Dupront, Le mythe de croisade, 3 vols. (1956; repr. Paris: Gallimard, 1997); Géraud Poumarède, Pour en finir avec la Croisade. Mythes et réalités de la lutte contre les Turcs aux xvi^e et xvii^e siècles (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 2009).

73. Some French-language specialists of Islamism do manage to reconcile textual study and fieldwork: Lacroix, Awakening Islam; Rougier, Qu’est-ce que le salafisme ?; Marie Vannetzel, Les Frères musulmans égyptiens. Enquête sur un secret public (Paris: Karthala, 2016).

74. On the lived experience of Islam in Egypt, see the useful but already dated studies by Patrick Gaffney (1994), Rachida Chih (2000), Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen (2005), Charles Hirschkind (2006), and Samuli Schielke (2012). Michel Boivin and Alexandre Papas have also analyzed lived Islam, in Pakistan and central Asia respectively, through the study of sanctuaries and Sufi texts.

75. Céline Trautmann-Waller, ed., Ignác Goldziher, un autre orientalisme ? (Paris: Geuthner, 2011). Abraham Geiger, the author of Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen? (Bonn: Baden, 1833), was one of the first scholars to analyze Islam using questions that had developed out of Reform Judaism.

76. H. A. R. Gibb, Modern Trends in Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Charles C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt: A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muḥammad ʿAbduh (London: Oxford University Press, 1933).

77. Researchers have described the decline of the Sufi brotherhoods (a process which did indeed occur)—see Michael Gilsenan, Saint and Sufi in Modern Egypt: An Essay in the Sociology of Religion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973)—but they have just as relevantly studied their resilience; see Valerie J. Hoffman, Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995); Rachida Chih, Le soufisme au quotidien. Confréries d’Égypte au xx^e siècle (Arles/Paris: Actes Sud/Sindbad, 2000).

78. François Georgeon, Le mois le plus long. Ramadan à Istanbul (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2017).

79. See the remarkable study by Constance E. Padwick, Muslim Devotions: A Study of Prayer-Manuals in Common Use (London: SPCK, 1961).

80. Brinkley Morris Messick, The Calligraphic State: Textual Domination and History in a Muslim Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

81. On Iran in the 1990s, see Fariba Adelkhah, Être moderne en Iran (1998; repr. Paris: Karthala, 2006). For a fine study of Iranian villagers’ representations of the world in the early 2000s, see Anne-Sophie Vivier-Mureşan, Afzâd. Ethnologie d’un village d’Iran (Tehran: Institut français de recherche en Iran, 2006). See also Sepideh Parsapajouh, “Les valeurs en cause. Crise de l’idéologie et crise de la transmission dans la société iranienne depuis la Révolution de 1979,” Archives de sciences sociales des religions 166, no. 2 (2014): 243–68; and Parsapajouh, “La châsse de l’imam Husayn. Fabrique et parcours politique d’un objet religieux de Qom à Karbala,” Archives de sciences sociales des religions 174, no. 2 (2016): 49–74.

82. Recent studies are revolutionizing the history of magic in Islam, though they focus primarily on the Middle Ages.

83. Bernard Heyberger, Les chrétiens du Proche-Orient au temps de la Réforme catholique. Syrie, Liban, Palestine, xvii^e– xviii^e siècles (Rome: École française de Rome, 1994). It is important to round out what we learn from this book with the current dialogue between Byzantinists and specialists of the Ottoman Empire and with Aurélien Girard’s history of science and philology.

84. Hans-Lukas Kieser, Nearest East: American Millennialism and Mission to the Middle East (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010); Heather J. Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt: Missionary Encounters in an Age of Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008); Renaud Soler, Edward Robinson (1794–1863) et l’émergence de l’archéologie biblique (Paris: Geuthner, 2014).

85. Jonatan Meir, Kabbalistic Circles in Jerusalem (1896–1948), trans. Avi Aronsky (Leiden: Brill, 2016).

86. Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen, “Hagiographies, quête mystique et tentation de l’autobiographie dans la culture religieuse arabe (xv^e–xix^e siècles),” in The Uses of First-Person Writings: Africa, America, Asia, Europe, ed. François-Joseph Ruggiu (Bern: Peter Lang, 2013), 33–60. Dominique Avon attempts a general comparison in Les religions monothéistes des années 1880 aux années 2000 (Paris: Ellipses, 2009).

87. Fazlur Rahman, Islam (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966); Nehemia Levtzion and John O. Voll, eds., Eighteenth-Century Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987).

88. In 1643, 23,000 people (not counting their families) were receiving official support. See Suraiya Faroqhi, Pilgrims and Sultans: The Hajj under the Ottomans, 1517–1683 (London: I. B. Tauris, 1994), 85.

89. John O. Voll, “Hadith Scholars and Tariqahs: An Ulama Group in the 18th Century Haramayn and their Impact in the Islamic World,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 15, no. 3/4 (1980): 264–73; Voll, “Linking Groups in the Networks of Eighteenth-Century Revivalist Scholars: The Mizjaji Family in Yemen,” in Letzion and Voll, Eighteenth-Century Renewal, 69–92; Voll, “ʿAbdallāh ibn Salīm al-Baṣrī and 18th Century Hadith Scholarship,” Die Welt des Islams 42, no. 3 (2002): 356–72.

90. John O. Voll, “Muḥammad ḥayyā al-Sindī and Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb: An Analysis of an Intellectual Group in Eighteenth-Century Madīna,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 38, no. 1 (1975): 32–39. Ahmad Dallal disputed this idea in “The Origins and Objectives of Islamic Revivalist Thought, 1750–1850,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 113, no. 3 (1993): 341–59. More recently, Ahmad S. Dallal’s Islam without Europe: Traditions of Reform in Eighteenth-Century Islamic Thought (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018), the product of decades of research, provides a close, in-depth, and wide-ranging reading of some of the great reformers, though it does not take into account the most recent studies.

91. Basheer M. Nafi, “Taṣawwuf and Reform in Pre-Modern Islamic Culture: In Search of Ibrāhīm al-Kūrānī,” Die Welt des Islams 42, no. 3 (2002): 307–55; Atallah S. Copty, “The Naqshbandiyya and Its Offshoot, the Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddidiyya in the Haramayn in the 11th/17th Century,” Die Welt des Islams 43, no. 3 (2003): 321–48; Rachida Chih, “Rattachement initiatique et pratique de la Voie, selon le Ṣimt al-majīd d’al-Qushshāshī (m. 1661),” in Le soufisme à l’époque ottomane, xvi^e– xviii^e siècle, ed. Rachida Chih and Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen (Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 2010), 189–208.

92. Roman Loimeier and Stefan Reichmuth, “Zur Dynamik religiös-politischer Netzwerke in muslimischen Gesellschaften,” Die Welt des Islams 36, no. 2 (1996): 145–85.

93. In his Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkānī (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), Bernard Haykel shows how a society “dominated by Zaydī Shiʿism shifted to one characterized instead by … the ‘sunnification’ of the legal rite for social and political reasons.”

94. Jean-Louis Triaud, La légende noire de la Sanūsiyya. Une confrérie musulmane saharienne sous le regard français, 1840–1930 (Paris: Éd. de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1995).

95. Rex Seán O’Fahey and Bernd Radtke, “Neo-Sufism Reconsidered,” Der Islam 70, no. 1 (1993): 52–87.

96. Madeline C. Zilfi, The Politics of Piety: The Ottoman Ulema in the Postclassical Age, 1600–1800 (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1988).

97. Reinhard Schulze, “Das islamische achtzehnte Jahrhundert. Versuch einer historiographischen Kritik,” Die Welt des Islams 30, no. 1/4 (1990): 140–59; Schulze “Was ist die islamische Aufklärung?” Die Welt des Islams 36, no. 3 (1996): 68–83.

98. Among the many reactions, see Rudolph Peters, “Reinhard Schulze’s Quest for an Islamic Enlightenment,” Die Welt des Islams 30, no. 1/4 (1990): 160–62.

99. Albrecht Hofheinz, “Illumination and Enlightenment Revisited, or: Pietism and the Roots of Islamic Modernity,” 2009, http://folk.uio.no/albrech/Hofheinz_IllumEnlightenment.pdf. See also Florian Zemmin, Johannes Stephan, and Monica Corrado, eds., Islam in der Moderne, Moderne im Islam. Eine Festschrift für Reinhard Schulze zum 65. Geburtstag (Leiden: Brill, 2018).

100. Bernd Radtke, “Sufism in the 18th Century: An Attempt at a Provisional Appraisal,” Die Welt des Islams 36, no. 3 (1996): 326–64.

101. Rex Seán O’Fahey, Enigmatic Saint: Aḥmad Ibn Idris and the Idrisi Tradition (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1990); Einar Thomassen and Bernd Radtke, eds., The Letters of Aḥmad Ibn Idrīs (London: Hurst, 1993).

102. Justin Stearns, “‘All Beneficial Knowledge is Revealed’: The Rational Sciences in the Maghrib in the Age of al-Yūsī (d. 1102/1691),” Islamic Law and Society 21 (2014): 49–80; Marco Schöller, “Zum Begriff des ‘islamischen Humanismus,’” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 151, no. 2 (2001): 275–320; Stefan Reichmuth, Jörn Rüsen, and Aladdin Sarhan, eds., Humanism and Muslim Culture: Historical Heritage and Contemporary Challenges (Göttingen/Taipei: V&R Unipress/National Taiwan University Press, 2012).

103. On African Islam, see Stefan Reichmuth, Islamische Bildung und soziale Integration in Ilorin (Nigeria) seit ca. 1800 (Münster: Lit, 1998); Albrecht Hofheinz, “Internalising Islam: Shaykh Muḥammad Majdhūb, Scriptural Islam, and Local Context in the Early Nineteenth Century Sudan” (PhD diss., University of Bergen, 1996); Ghislaine Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails: Islamic Law, Trade Networks, and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-Century Western Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

104. Samuela Pagani, “Il rinnovamento mistico dell’Islam. Un commento di ʿAbd al-Ganī al-Nābulusī a Aḥmad Sirhindī” (PhD diss., Università degli studi di Napoli L’Orientale, 2003), 14.

105. Yohanan Friedmann, Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī: An Outline of his Thought and a Study of his Image in the Eyes of Posterity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Alberto Ventura, Profezia e santità secondo Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī (Cagliari: Istituto di studi africani et orientali, 1990); Johan G. J. ter Haar, Follower and Heir of the Prophet: Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī (1564–1624) as Mystic (Leiden: Het Oosters Instituut, 1992); Arthur F. Buehler, Revealed Grace: The Juristic Sufism of Aḥmad Sirhindī (1564–1624) (Louisville: Fons Vitae, 2011).

106. Pagani, “Il rinnovamento mistico dell’Islam.”

107. Abū Dāwūd, Sunan Abī Dāwūd Kitāb al-Malāhim: “Inna Allāh yabʿathu li-hādhihi l-umma ʿalā raʾsi kulli miʾat sana man yujaddid lahā dīnahā.”

108. Samuela Pagani, “Renewal before Reformism: ʿAbd al-Ghanī al-Nābulusī’s Reading of Aḥmad Sirhindī’s Ideas on Tajdīd,” Journal of the History of Sufism 5 (2008): 291–318.

109. Pagani, “Il rinnovamento mistico dell’Islam.”

110. Ibid., 95–97. Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, “Tajdīd al-dīn: A Reconsideration of Its Meaning, Roots and Influence in Islam,” in Studies in Islamic and Judaic Traditions, ed. William M. Brinner and Stephen J. Ricks (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986), 99–108, called attention to the Jewish origins of the concept. See also Ella Landau-Tasseron, “The ‘Cyclical Reform’: A Study of the Mujaddid Tradition,” Studia islamica 70 (1989): 79–117.

111. John O’Kane and Bernd Radtke, eds., Pure Gold from the Words of Sayyidī ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Dabbāgh (Leiden: Brill, 2007).

112. Tayeb Chouiref, Soufisme et Hadith dans l’Égypte ottomane. ʿAbd al-Raʾūf al-Munāwī (952/1545–1031/1622) (Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 2020); Sabrina I. Sohbi, “Penser la loi en Égypte et en Syrie entre la fin de l’époque mamelouke et le début de l’époque ottomane (xv^e–xvi^e siècles)” (PhD diss., Aix-Marseille-Université, 2016).

113. Richard McGregor, “Is This the End of Medieval Sufism?” in Chih and Mayeur-Jaouen, Le soufisme à l’époque ottomane, 83–100.

114. Ralf Elger, Glaube, Skepsis, Poesie. Arabische Istanbul-Reisende im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert (Beirut/Würzburg: Orient-Institut Beirut/Ergon Verlag, 2011).

115. Stefan Reichmuth and Florian Schwarz, eds., Zwischen Alltag und Schriftkultur. Horizonte des Individuellen in der arabischen Literatur des 17. Und 19. Jahrhunderts (Beirut/Würzburg: Orient-Institut Beirut/Ergon Verlag, 2008); Ralf Elger and Yavuz Köse, eds., Many Ways of Speaking about the Self: Middle Eastern Ego-Documents in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish (14th–20th Century) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2010).

116. Dana Sajdi, The Barber of Damascus: Nouveau Literacy in the Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Levant (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013).

117. Nelly Hanna, In Praise of Books: A Cultural History of Cairo’s Middle Class, Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2003).

118. Ulrich W. Haarmann, “Ideology and History, Identity and Alterity: The Arab Image of the Turk from the ʿAbbasids to Modern Egypt,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 20, no. 2 (1988): 175–96; Astrid Meier, “Perceptions of a New Era? Historical Writing in Early Ottoman Damascus,” Arabica 51, no. 4 (2004): 419–34.

119. Aslı Niyazioğlu, Dreams and Lives in Ottoman Istanbul: A Seventeenth-Century Biographer’s Perspective (London: Routledge, 2017); Marinos Sariyannis, “The Dead, the Spirits and the Living: On Ottoman Ghost Stories,” Journal of Turkish Studies 44 (2015): 373–90.

120. These ideas remain widespread despite Cemal Kafadar’s lucid critical assessment in “The Question of Ottoman Decline,” Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 4, no. 1/2 (1997–1998): 30–75. See also Ismail Warscheid, “The Persisting Spectre of Cultural Decline: Historiographical Approaches to Muslim Scholarship in the Early Modern Maghreb,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 60, no. 1/2 (2017): 142–73.

121. Khaled El-Rouayheb, “Opening the Gate of Verification: The Forgotten Arab-Islamic Florescence of the 17th Century,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 38, no. 2 (2006): 263–81.

122. Hilary Kilpatrick, “A Genre in Classical Arabic Literature: The Adab Encyclopedia,” in Proceedings [of the] 10th Congress of the UEAI, ed. Robert Hillenbrand (Edinburgh: UEAI, 1982), 34–42; Francesca Bellino, “Arabic Encyclopaedias and Encyclopaedism between the Seventeenth and Nineteenth Centuries: Forms, Functions, Intersections of Adab and Modernity,” in Adab and Modernity: A “Process of Civilization”? ed. Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen (Leiden: Brill, 2020).

123. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans, 1:292.

124. Frederick De Jong and Bernd Radtke, eds., Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics (Leiden: Brill, 1999).

125. Samuela Pagani, “The Meaning of the ikhtilāf al-madhāhib in ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʿrānī’s al-Mīzān al-kubrā,” Islamic Law and Society 11, no. 2 (2004): 177–212. The value ascribed to ikhtilāf meant that certain Sufis had a positive opinion of Christians and even Jews. Niyāzī Miṣrī (d. 1694), for instance, was close to the Sabbatean circle that developed around Sabbataï Zvi’s teachings on the Jewish “Messiah.”

126. In 1518, soon after the conquest of the Arab provinces, the Ottoman Empire decreed that the Hanafi rite alone would be accepted for the cursus honorum of the ulama hierarchy, courts, and judges. The three other rites subsisted but lower in the hierarchy. In Syria, for example, many ulama shifted from Shafiism to Hanafism for the sake of their careers.

127. Lejla Demiri and Samuela Pagani, eds., Early Modern Trends in Islamic Theology: ʿAbd al-Ghanī al-Nābulusī and his Network of Scholarship (Studies and Texts) (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019). Michael A. Cook, Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), attaches considerable importance to al-Nābulusī. See also Barbara Rosenow von Schlegell, “Sufism in the Ottoman Arab World: Shaykh ʿAbd al-Ġanī al-Nābulusī (d. 1143/1731)” (PhD diss., University of California, 1997); Alberto Fabio Ambrosio, Vie d’un derviche tourneur. Doctrine et rituels du soufisme au xvii^e siècle (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2010).

128. Tilman Nagel, Im Offenkundigen das Verborgene. Die Heilszusage des sunnitischen Islams (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2002), 11–30. The doctrinal catechism taught in Azharian-system preparatory schools still featured Laqqānī’s profession of faith in 2017.

129. Pagani, “Il rinnovamento mistico dell’Islam,” 142.

130. Meier, “Perceptions of a New Era?”

131. Wael B. Hallaq, “Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?” International Journal of Middle East Studies 16, no. 1 (1984): 3–41.

132. Baber Johansen, The Islamic Law on Land Tax and Rent: The Peasants’ Loss of Property Rights as Interpreted in the Hanafite Legal Literature of the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods (London: Croom Helm, 1988); Johansen, Contingency in a Sacred Law: Legal and Ethical Norms in the Muslim Fiqh (Leiden: Brill, 1999); Haïm Gerber, Islamic Law and Culture, 1600–1840 (Leiden: Brill, 1999).

133. Guy Burak, The Second Formation of Islamic Law: The Ḥanafī School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

134. Konrad Hirschler, The Written Word in the Medieval Arabic Lands: A Social and Cultural History of Reading Practices (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012).

135. Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) is a conceptual model of the information contained in libraries’ bibliographic records. On the use of these norms in the catalog of the Institut dominicain d’études orientales (IDÉO), a pioneering library catalog of works in Arabic, see https://alkindi.ideo-cairo.org. On digital humanities and the “Shamela” project, see Yonatan Belinkov et al., “Shamela: A Large-Scale Historical Arabic Corpus,” in Proceedings of the Workshop on Language Technology Resources and Tools for Digital Humanities (LT4DH), ed. Erhard Hinrichs, Marie Hinrichs, and Thorsten Trippel (Osaka: COLING 2016 Organizing Committee, 2016), 45–53.

136. Yūsuf Zaydān, Al-Maḫṭūṭāt al-šāriḥa. Aʿmāl al-muʾtamar al-dawlī al-ṯāliṯ li-markaz al-maḫṭūṭāt. Māris 2006/Commentary Manuscripts: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference of the Manuscript Center, March 2006 (Alexandria: Maktabat al-Iskandriyya, 2009); Asad Q. Ahmed and Margaret Larkin, “The Ḥāshiya and Islamic Intellectual History,” Oriens 41, no. 3/4 (2013): 213–16; Jawdath Jabbour, review of “Qu’est-ce que commenter en Islam ?” special issue, Mélanges de l’Institut dominicain d’études orientales, MIDÉO 32 (2017): ix–170, in Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 146 (2019): https://doi.org/10.4000/remmm.10273.

137. Michael Winter, Society and Religion in Early Ottoman Egypt: Studies in the Writings of ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʿrānī (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1982); Éric Geoffroy, Le soufisme en Égypte et en Syrie sous les derniers Mamelouks et les premiers Ottomans. Orientations spirituelles et enjeux culturels (Damascus: Institut français de Damas, 1995); Chih and Mayeur-Jaouen, Le soufisme à l’époque ottomane.

138. Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Türk edebiyatıʾnda ilk mutasavvıflar (1911; repr. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1966); Köprülü, Early Mystics in Turkish Literature [1911], trans. and ed. Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff (London: Routledge, 2006); Köprülü, Islam in Anatolia after the Turkish Invasion [1922], trans. and ed. Gary Leiser (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1993); Irène Mélikoff, Hadji Bektach : un mythe, ses avatars. Genèse et évolution du soufisme populaire en Turquie (Leiden: Brill, 1998); Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, ed., Sufism and Sufis in Ottoman Society: Sources, Doctrine, Rituals, Turuq, Architecture, Literature and Fine Arts, Modernism (Ankara: Atatürk Supreme Council for Culture, Language and History, 2005).

139. Markus Dressler, “Inventing Orthodoxy: Competing Claims for Authority and Legitimacy in the Ottoman-Safavid Conflict,” in Legitimizing the Order: The Ottoman Rhetoric of State Power, ed. Hakan T. Karateke and Maurus Reinkowski (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 151–73.

140. Gilles Veinstein and Nathalie Clayer, “L’Empire ottoman,” in Popovic and Veinstein, Les Voies d’Allah.

141. A. C. S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yıldız, eds., Islamic Literature and Intellectual Life in Fourteenth- and Fifteenth-Century Anatolia (Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2016).

142. Cemal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

143. Rudolph Peters, “What Does It Mean to Be an Official Madhhab? Hanafism and the Ottoman Empire,” in The Islamic School of Law: Evolution, Devolution, and Progress, ed. Peri J. Bearman, Rudolph Peters, and Frank E. Vogel (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005), 147–58.

144. According to Nabil Al-Tikriti, “Kalam in the Service of State: Apostasy and the Defining of Ottoman Islamic Identity,” in Karateke and Reinkowski, Legitimizing the Order, 131–49, this theological choice implied a more rigorous definition of apostasy.

145. Tijana Krstić, “Illuminated by the Light of Islam and the Glory of the Ottoman Sultanate: Self-Narratives of Conversion to Islam in the Age of Confessionalization,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 1 (2009): 35–63. The concept of “confessionalization” was first used by Ernst Walter Zeeden in Konfessionsbildung. Studien zur Reformation, Gegenreformation und katholischen Reform (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1985), then developed separately in the 1970s and 1980s by Heinz Schilling and Wolfgang Reinhard. See Thomas Kaufmann, “Konfessionalisierung,” in Enzyklopädie der Neuzeit, ed. Friedrich Jaeger, vol. 6 (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 2007), 1053–70; Heinrich Richard Schmidt, “Sozialdisziplinierung? Ein Plädoyer für das Ende des Etatismus in der Konfessionalisierungsforschung,” Historische Zeitschrift 265 (1997): 639–82. On the adoption of the term in French, see Christophe Duhamelle, “Confession, confessionnalisation,” Histoire, monde et cultures religieuses 2, no. 26 (2013): 59–74.

146. Cornell Fleischer, “The Lawgiver as Messiah: The Making of the Imperial Image in the Reign of Süleymān,” in Soliman le Magnifique et son temps, ed. Gilles Veinstein (Paris: La documentation française, 1992), 159–77; Fleischer, “Ancient Wisdom and New Sciences: Prophecies at the Ottoman Court in the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries,” in Falnama: The Book of Omens, ed. Massumeh Farhad and Serpil Bağci (London: Thames and Hudson, 2009): 232–43.

147. Derin Terzioğlu, “How to Conceptualize Ottoman Sunnitization: A Historiographical Discussion,” Turcica 44 (2012–2013): 301–38.

148. Gerber, Islamic Law and Culture, 15–16.

149. Reem Meshal, “Antagonistic Sharīʿas and the Construction of Orthodoxy in Sixteenth-Century Ottoman Cairo,” Journal of Islamic Studies 21, no. 2 (2010): 183–212.

150. Marc David Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam: Conversion and Conquest in Ottoman Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Tijana Krstić, Contested Conversions to Islam: Narratives of Religious Change and Communal Politics in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011).

151. See the papers given at the conference “La confessionnalisation dans les Orients européen et méditerranéen,” organized by Aurélien Girard at the École française de Rome, December 2016; Aurélien Girard, Bernard Heyberger, and Vassa Kontouma, eds., Livres et confessions chrétiennes orientales. Une histoire connectée entre l’Empire ottoman, le monde slave et l’Occident ( xvi^e– xviii^e siècles) (Turnhout: Brepols, 2023).

152. Jon Hoover, “Perpetual Creativity in the Perfection of God: Ibn Taymiyya’s Hadith Commentary on God’s Creation of this World,” Journal of Islamic Studies 15, no. 3 (2004): 287–329; Hoover, “Ibn Taymiyya between Moderation and Radicalism,” in Reclaiming Islamic Tradition: Modern Interpretations of the Classical Heritage, ed. Elizabeth Kendall and Ahmad Khan (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016): 177–203; Yossef Rapoport and Shabab Ahmed, eds., Ibn Taymiyya and His Times (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Caterina Bori and Livnat Holtzman, eds., A Scholar in the Shadow: Essays in the Legal and Theological Thought of Ibn Qayyim al-Ğawziyyah (Rome: Istituto per l’Oriente C. A. Nallino, 2010); Birgit Krawietz and Georges Tamer, eds., Islamic Theology, Philosophy and Law: Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2013).

153. Alexander D. Knysh, Ibn ʿArabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam (Albany: Suny Press, 1998).

154. Vincent J. Cornell, Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999).

155. Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen, “La vision du monde par une hagiographie anhistorique de l’Égypte ottoman : les Ṭabaqāt sharnūbiyya et les quatre Pôles,” in Chih and Mayeur-Jaouen, Le soufisme à l’époque ottomane, 129–50.

156. Words addressed by Abdellatif Idrissi in Spring 2017 to the French government’s 2017 task force on the training of imams, headed by Rachid Benzine, Mathilde Philip-Gay, and Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen.