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Exodus and return: State-building, local responses, and identity negotiation in China's Burma borderlands, 1949–66

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 October 2024

Lihong Lei Open the ORCID record for Lihong Lei [Opens in a new window]
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Abstract

This article, grounded in archival research from Chinese border prefectures, delves into the complexities of migration dynamics, specifically the phenomena of exodus from and return to China following the Communist takeover in 1949. It reveals how various reforms, enforced collectivisation and religious restrictions disrupted local lives, causing social panic and identity crises, which led to the disintegration of everyday life among borderland communities. Local residents’ responses predominantly involved crossing the border to seek refuge in Burma. The article critically scrutinises local authorities’ efforts to alleviate resultant instability, with the aim of retaining the borderland populace and attracting back those who had left, while also imposing the ideologies of the new communist state. Rather than viewing these ‘illicit’ cross-border movements as mere acts of resistance to governance, this study argues that they involved active negotiations for a stable daily life amid socio-political upheaval. The research contributes new insights into the micro-level mechanisms of state-building, and the integration of borderland peoples into the new Communist regime. Amid mass emigration and repatriation, state engagement permeated daily life in borderland communities, facilitating national identity formation and nation-state construction.

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Research Article
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Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 55 , Issue 1 , March 2024 , pp. 28 - 49
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The National University of Singapore

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Footnotes

An earlier version was presented at the 2021 Annual Conference of the East Asian Anthropological Association at Jinan (online), 27–28 Nov. 2021. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the two JSEAS reviewers for their invaluable and insightful comments, which have substantially enriched and elevated the quality of this article.

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21 Sarah Turner, Christine Bonnin and Jean Michaud, Frontier livelihoods: Hmong in the Sino-Vietnamese borderlands (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015).

22 Menglian County shares a 133.399 km-long border with Burma on the west and south. ‘Menglian xian qing’ [Menglian County profile], http://www.menglian.gov.cn/mlgk/mljj.htm (last accessed 3 Mar. 2024); Lancang County shares an 80.563 km-long border with Shan State in Burma. ‘Lancang xian jiben xian qing’ [Basic profile of Lancang County], http://www.lancang.gov.cn/info/6977/727302.htm (last accessed 3 Mar. 2024).

23 Michel de Certeau, The practice of everyday life, trans. Steven Rendall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), p. 117.

24 The need to ‘win the trust of the archive departments’ stems from the politically sensitive nature of their contents, the departments’ inherent responsibility to protect their resources, and their desire to ensure that the archives are used for scholarly and non-malicious purposes.

25 Anssi Paasi, ‘Bounded spaces in a “borderless world”: Border studies, power and the anatomy of territory’, Journal of Power 2, 2 (2009): 213–34.

26 ‘Lancang xian sannian lai minzu gongzuo chengjiu’ [The accomplishments of Lancang County's ethnic work throughout the last three years], vol. 9, 1954, Lancang County Archives. The archival materials on Lancang County used in this article are all sourced from the Lancang County Archives, specifically from the files of the Lancang County United Front Work Department for the years 1951–67.

27 ‘Menglian sinian lai minzu gongzuo chengjiu’ [The accomplishments of Menglian's ethnic work throughout the last four years], 1954, Menglian County Archives.

28 ‘Counterrevolutionaries’ include bandits, special agents, local strongmen, and other elements who the authorities viewed as harmful to the populace. Note that this designation was broad and could be applied flexibly, depending on perceived threats to the state.

29 Enze Han, Asymmetrical neighbors: Borderland state building between China and Southeast Asia (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2019).

30 ‘Soubu hou taopao shijian huibao’ [Report on the fleeing after the arrest of counterrevolutionaries], 25 Nov. 1955, Menglian County Archives.

31 ‘Guanyu zhenfan zhong zhixing zhengce de jiancha’ [Inspection of the implementation of counterrevolutionary policies], 26 Dec. 1955, Menglian County Archives.

32 ‘Menglianxian bianmin waitao qingkuang he jinhou gongzuo yijian’ [The fleeing situation of borderland people in Menglian County and opinions on future work], 26 Dec. 1958, Menglian County Archives.

33 Land reform was not implemented progressively in 26 counties along the border until 1955–57, including Lancang and Menglian. It was carried out rather peacefully, without the extreme violence and killing of landlords that occurred in most inland provinces, in the hope of increasing interethnic unity, gaining the support of local leaders, and consolidating control over the borderlands.

34 ‘Menglianxian linian waitao waiqian shuzi’.

35 Ibid.

36 The catty is a traditional Chinese measure of mass equivalent to 0.5 kg.

37 ‘Muqian bianyan yixian qingkuang ji jinhou gongzuo yijian’ [Current border situation and opinions on future work], 4 Apr. 1956, Menglian County Archives.

38 ‘Menglianxian sannian lai gongan gongzuo jiben zongjie’.

39 ‘Guanyu Lalei qu kaizhan zhengqu waitao qingkuang de baogao’ [A report on the efforts of the Lalei District to convince fleeing people to return], 14 Jan. 1959, Menglian County Archives.

40 Field notes, 12 Oct. 2015.

41 ‘Guanyu Lancang xian Nuofu qu jidujiao wenti de diaocha baogao’ [Investigation report on Christianity issues in Nuofu District, Lancang County], vol. 24, 23 Oct. 1961, Lancang County Archives.

42 ‘Menglian sinian lai minzu gongzuo chengjiu’.

43 ‘Dangqian waitao qingkuang ji jinhou yijian de baogao’ [A report on the current fleeing situation and upcoming work], 17 June 1960, Menglian County Archives.

44 ‘Cong waitao nongmin jieceng zhongkan zhengzhi qingkuang’ [The political situation of the fleeing peasant], 31 Dec. 1958, Menglian County Archives.

45 Lianfang Wang, ‘Yunnan minzu gongzuo de yiduan quzhe suiyue (xia)’ [A period of hardship in Yunnan's ethnic work (part 2)], Minzu Gongzuo 9 (1998): 45–8.

46 ‘‘Guanyu Lalei qu kaizhan zhengqu waitao qingkuang de baogao’.

47 During the era of the planned economy in the PRC, the gongfen was a unit of measurement for the amount of work accomplished in rural communes.

48 ‘Menglianxian bianmin waitao qingkuang he jinhou gongzuo yijian’.

49 ‘Gu zu ganjin, ji zhui zhi gan’ [Summon up the energy and catch up urgently], 16 Jan. 1958, Menglian County Archives.

50 Lianfang Wang, ‘Yunnan minzu gongzuo de yiduan quzhe suiyue (shang)’ [A period of hardship in Yunnan's ethnic work (part 1)], Minzu Gongzuo 8 (1998): 45–8.

51 ‘Menglianxian wei guanyu qunzhong chengpi waichu qingkuang baogao’ [Menglian County of CCP's report on the mass fleeing of ordinary people], 11 Aug. 1960, Menglian County Archives.

52 The Party History Research Office of the Yunnan Provincial Committee of the CCP and the Yunnan Provincial Archives, Dayuejin yundong (Yunnan juan) [The Great Leap Forward movement (Yunnan volume)] (Beijing: History of CCP Publishing House, 2014), p. 413.

53 Ibid.

54 Guo, Jiaji, Yunnan de minzu tuanjie yu bianjiang wending [Ethnic unity and borderland stability in Yunnan] (Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House, 1997), p. 160Google Scholar.

55 ‘Menglianxian liu ling nian yi zhi wuyue nian ri de waitao qingkuang’ [Menglian County's fleeing situation from Jan. to 20 May 1960], 14 June 1960, Menglian County Archives.

56 ‘Menglianxian wei guanyu qunzhong chengpi waichu qingkuang baogao’.

57 ‘Menglianxian bianmin waitao qingkuang he jinhou gongzuo yijian’.

58 ‘Guanyu donghui qu banli xiang jidujiao liu er niandu shengdanjie huodong qingkuang baogao’ [Report on the situation of Christmas activities in the Christian community of Banli Township, Donghui District, for the Year 1962], vol. 26, 28 Dec. 1962, Lancang County Archives.

59 ‘Nuofu jidujiao jinnianlai cunzai de wenti’ [The problems of Nuofu Christianity in recent years], vol. 8, 1955, Lancang County Archives.

60 ‘Lancang diqu jinianlai zongjiao gongzuo qingkuang he wenti’ [The situation and problems of religious work in Lancang region over the last few years], vol. 19, Apr. 1958, Lancang County Archives.

61 ‘Guanyu Lancang xian Nuofu qu jidujiao wenti de diaocha baogao’.

62 ‘Guanyu Simao diqu bianjiang zongjiao wenti de diaochabaogao (chugao)’ [Investigation report on the borderland religious issues in Simao Prefecture (draft)], vol. 25, 4 Nov. 1958, Lancang County Archives.

63 ‘Lancang xian jidujiao qingkuang baogao’ [Report on Christianity in Lancang County], vol. 23, 14 Nov. 1960, Lancang County Archives.

64 ‘Nuofu jidujiao jinnianlai cunzai de wenti’.

65 ‘Shangyun qu xiaochengfojiao bianhua qingkuang’ [Changes in Theravada Buddhism in Shangyun District], vol. 39, 12 Sep. 1966, Lancang County Archives.

66 ‘Guanyu Simao diqu bianjiang zongjiao wenti de diaochabaogao (chugao)’.

67 State attitudes towards Buddhism and Christianity were distinct at that time, so the impacts on each also differed. Buddhists were primarily affected by secularisation policies, such as requiring monks to return to secular life to increase the labour force and reducing offering times to decrease resource waste, whereas Christians faced greater challenges, including being forced to abandon their faith. Thus, Christians experienced a more severe religious crisis and were more likely to flee than Buddhists.

68 ‘Guanyu Nuofu qu jidujiao bianhua huodong qingkuang’ [The changes and activities of Christianity in Nuofu district], vol. 30, 5 Mar. 1960, Lancang County Archives.

69 ‘Lancang xian jidujiao qingkuang baogao’.

70 ‘Guanyu zai wu ji ganbu huiyi shang fanying de zongjiao qingkuang (buchong cailiao)’ [Regarding the religious situation reflected in the five-level cadre meeting (supplementary material)], vol. 21, 8 July 1959, Lancang County Archives.

71 ‘Guanyu Simao diqu bianjiang zongjiao wenti de diaochabaogao (chugao)’.

72 ‘Wu ba nian zongjiao gongzuo wenti’ [Religious work issues in 1958], vol. 19, 1959, Lancang County Archives.

73 ‘Guanyu Nuofu jidujiao qingkuang diaocha’ [An investigation on the Nuofu Christianity], vol. 19, July 1958, Lancang County Archives.

74 ‘Wu ba nian zongjiao gongzuo qingkuang’ [Religious work in 1958], vol. 19, 10 Jan. 1959, Lancang County Archives.

75 ‘Jidujiao bianhua qingkuang’ [The changing situation of Christianity], vol. 39, 1966, Lancang County Archives.

76 ‘Guanyu Simao diqu bianjiang zongjiao wenti de diaochabaogao (chugao)’.

77 ‘Menglianxian bianmin waitao qingkuang he jinhou gongzuo yijian’.

78 ‘Shangyun qu xiaochengfojiao bianhua qingkuang’.

79 ‘Jingneiwai jiaohui he jiaotu de lianxi’ [Contacts between churches and believers at home and abroad], vol. 21, 1959, Lancang County Archives.

80 Field notes, 12 Oct. 2015.

81 Ibid.

82 Field notes, 18 Dec. 2014.

83 ‘Yiyue lai zhengqu waitao gongzuo xiaojie’.

84 ‘Menglianxian sannian lai gongan gongzuo jiben zongjie’.

85 ‘Quanxian jidujiao de jiben qingkuang’ [The basic situation of Christianity in the County], vol. 21, 1959, Lancang County Archives.

86 ‘Xuanchuan tigang’ [Propaganda outline], 27 Dec. 1958, Menglian County Archives.

87 ‘Yiyue lai zhengqu waitao gongzuo xiaojie’.

88 ‘Menglian xian zhengqu waitao de jidian jingyan’ [Several experiences in convincing fleeing people to return in Menglian County], 8 Jan. 1959, Menglian County Archives.

89 ‘Nuofu jidujiao jinnianlai cunzai de wenti’.

90 ‘Guanyu Nuofu jiaohui suo tichu yaoqiu de yijian’ [Opinions on the requirements proposed by Nuofu church], vol. 18, 4 Sept. 1957, Lancang County Archives.

91 ‘Lancang jidujiao qingkuang’ [The situation of Christianity in Lancang], vol. 34, 27 Oct. 1963, Lancang County Archives.

92 ‘Shengwei pizhuan Simao diwei guanyu Lancang diqu jidujiao diyici daibiao huiyi zhaokai qingkuang de baogao’ [The Yunnan Committee of CCP approved and forwarded the Simao Prefectural Committee's ‘Report on the convening of the first Christian representative conference in Lancang region’], vol. 18, 27 May 1957, Lancang County Archives.

93 ‘Guanyu Lancang xian Nuofu qu jidujiao wenti de diaocha baogao’.

94 ‘Guanyu yanbian wenti he waishi wenti de chuli yijian’ [Opinions on handling border issues and foreign affairs], 13 Mar. 1956, Menglian County Archives.

95 ‘Simao diwei guanyu bianjiang gezi zhi qu guanche waihui wenti qingkuang de baogao’ [Report of the Simao Prefectural Committee on issues of the implementation of foreign exchange policies in border regions], 28 June 1955, Menglian County Archives.

96 ‘Wu ba nian zongjiao gongzuo qingkuang’.

97 ‘Simao diwei Simao junfenqu guanyu guanche zhixing shengwei bianjiang gongzuo zhishi de yijian’ [Opinions of the Simao Prefectural Committee and the Simao Military Division on implementing the Provincial Party Committee's borderland work instructions], 15 Oct. 1959, Menglian County Archives.

98 ‘Guanyu liji dongyuan quanxian chuji dali kaizhan duidi douzheng ji wending qunzhong zhengqu waitao wai qian bianmin huiguo de zhishi’ [Instructions on immediately mobilising all forces, vigorously fighting the enemies, stabilising the masses, and striving for the return of the exodus people], 26 Apr. 1960, Menglian County Archives.

99 Han, Asymmetrical neighbors.

100 ‘Yiyue lai zhengqu waitao gongzuo xiaojie’.

101 ‘‘Guanyu liji dongyuan quanxian chuji dali kaizhan duidi douzheng’.

102 Harvey, David, Spaces of capital: Towards a critical geography (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 225CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

103 Paasi, ‘Bounded spaces in a “borderless world”’.

104 Jonsson, Hjorleifur, Slow anthropology: Negotiating difference with the Iu Mien (Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University, 2014)Google Scholar.