1 Introduction
Probabilities are useful when acting in the absence of complete knowledge, e.g., in forecasting or decision making. Such probabilities are interpreted as measures of degrees of likelihood and are assessed against a criterion of truth (von Winterfeldt & Edwards, Reference von Winterfeldt and Edwards1986). Scoring rules, as assessments of the quality of probability judgments, operate from this perspective, comparing likelihood assessments to actual outcomes, in an application of the truth criterion (see, e.g., Yates, Reference Yates1990, chap. 3).
However, from the very origins of probability theory, scholars recognized that truth is not the only criterion of potential interest for interpreting probabilities. Smith, Benson and Curley (Reference Smith, Benson and Curley1991) tied this recognition to a philosophical analysis of knowledge as “justified true belief” (e.g., Shope, Reference Shope1983) and to the use of probabilities as qualifications of beliefs that fall short of knowledge. The analysis highlights two separate criteria along which such beliefs may be qualified: truth and justification. This theoretical distinction forms the basis of a long-standing differentiation between Pascalian probability based on likelihood relative to a criterion of truth and Baconian probability based on support relative to a criterion of justification. (See Shafer, Reference Shafer1978, for an excellent historical discussion). The distinction is also the basis of a common differentiation between the weight and the balance of evidence that can be traced to Keynes (Reference Keynes1921) and which has played a major role in motivating the study of ambiguity in decision-making beginning with Ellsberg (Reference Keynes1961).
In short, likelihoods are intended to capture the balance of evidence and are connected with the criterion of truth. If A is true, not-A is false. To the degree that the evidence favors A, the balance of evidence moves toward A and away from not-A in equal measure. The weight of evidence is connected with the criterion of justification. Weight depends upon the quantity and credibility of the evidence: How much good evidence is there? How well does the evidence afford any differentiation of possibilities?
Unlike evidential balance, evidential weight does not imply complementarity. In probability theory, when the judgment of one hypothesis increases, the sum of the judgments for the remaining hypotheses must decrease by the same amount. In truth, one and only one of a mutually exclusive set of events can occur, thus likelihoods should exhibit complementarity, and probabilities capture this feature.
In contrast, evidential weight as a construct, grounded in the criterion of justification, is not expected to exhibit this property. Increased support for one possibility does not necessarily impinge on the support for other possibilities. The belief functions of Dempster-Shafer theory are discussed in this paper as justification-based measures that do not incorporate complementarity as a necessary axiom.
One source of the confusion between the constructs of likelihood and weight, and of the measures attached to them, is that these constructs and measures generally correlate. A useful analogy can be drawn here with height and weight as two aspects of size. Though these measures correlate, they capture distinct size constructs. Similarly, probabilities as measures of likelihood and belief functions as measures of justification may correlate, but they capture different degree-of-belief constructs. Griffin and Tversky (Reference Griffin and Tversky1992) provided a demonstration of the usefulness of the distinction, showing how the inclusion of considerations of weight, in addition to the balance of evidence, can serve to explain various empirical characteristics of confidence judgments.
There are a number of situations in which justification is of primary interest to the decision maker, or of interest in addition to truth. For example, justification is of interest in legal settings (where the goal is to remove doubt), in stock analysis (for which the emphasis is upon justifying recommendations to clients), in diagnostic tasks in which the truth is not feasibly determinable (e.g., within public policy debates), and in scientific inference (cf. Ray & Krantz, Reference Ray and Krantz1996).
Despite this history and their potential usefulness, measures of justification have been little studied empirically or been confounded with measures of likelihood. The research has probably been somewhat hampered by the respective and different natures of truth and justification. Probability theory as capturing likelihoods benefits from the ultimate realization of the truth in many instances for which it is applied and because of the underpinnings of randomization and relative frequency from which it historically derives (Curley, in press; Hacking, Reference Hacking1975). The application of a system used for capturing justification, and the use of Dempster-Shafer theory for this purpose, is more equivocal about the underlying theoretical mechanisms supporting such judgments (cf. Ray & Krantz, Reference Ray and Krantz1996; Shafer, Reference Shafer1976; Reference Shafer1981). Here the argument for applying Dempster-Shafer theory is based on correspondence between aspects of evidential weight and unique features of the theory, e.g., its noncomplementarity and the natural representation of ignorance, i.e. the case where no information is present (Curley & Golden, Reference Curley and Golden1994).
In terms of previous work using Dempster-Shafer theory, most prior research with this system has been theoretical, for example, in pursuing the use of belief functions for propagating uncertainty in AI/expert systems in addition or instead of using probabilities (e.g., Barnett, Reference Barnett1981; Cohen & Shoshany, Reference Cohen and Shoshany2005; Gillett & Srivastava, Reference Gillett and Srivastava2000; Henkind & Harrison, Reference Henkind and Harrison1988; Yang, Liu, Wang, Sii & Wang, Reference Yang, Liu, Wang, Sii and Wang2006).
Although sparse, there is some suggestive empirical work. The cited work of Griffin and Tversky (Reference Griffin and Tversky1992), directly, and the extensive work on the effects of ambiguity in decision making (e.g., Camerer & Weber, Reference Camerer and Weber1992; Curley, Yates & Abrams, Reference Curley, Yates and Abrams1986; Einhorn & Hogarth, Reference Einhorn and Hogarth1986; Hogarth & Kunreuther, Reference Hogarth and Kunreuther1989), indirectly, testify to the relevance of evidential weight to decision behavior. In addition, responses in hypothetical legal contexts that emphasize justification exhibit noncomplementarity of degrees of belief in a manner consistent with the tenets of Dempster-Shafer theory (Curley & Golden, Reference Curley and Golden1994; Schum & Martin, Reference Schum and Martin1987; van Wallendael & Hastie, Reference van Wallendael and Hastie1990). Briggs and Krantz (Reference Briggs and Krantz1992) adopted a measurement perspective and demonstrated that judgments of evidential strength are separable. That is, subjects “showed clear separation of relevant from irrelevant evidence and of designated from surrounding relevant evidence” (p. 77). In sum, the results support the value and viability of measuring evidential weight as distinct from the more commonly assessed construct of likelihood.
Since likelihood judgments have received more attention than weight judgments and are often confused with them, particular emphasis must be placed on this distinction. Specifically, important distinctions from discussions in the literature need to be drawn: separating justification-based measures such as in the present application of Dempster-Shafer theory from weak theories of likelihood and from the theory of subjective probability called Support Theory.
1.1 Important Distinctions
1.1.1 Weak Measures of Likelihood
With accumulating evidence that Expected Utility (EU) theory does not provide an adequate descriptive theory of choice, one of the research directions has been to investigate weaker theories of choice while maintaining the expectation framework. Often this approach involves relaxing or omitting one or more of the axioms that underlie EU theory (e.g., as expressed by von Neumann & Morgenstern, Reference von Neumann and Morgenstern1947, or by Luce & Suppes, Reference Luce, Suppes, Luce, Bush and Galanter1965), or its close cousin Subjective Expected Utility (SEU) theory (Savage, Reference Savage1954). The use of weighting functions, like those in Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky, Reference Kahneman and Tversky1979; cf. Karmarkar, Reference Karmarkar1978) or in Cumulative Prospect Theory (Tversky & Kahneman, Reference Tversky and Kahneman1992), exemplify an approach in which a likelihood-based function in choice is modified to accommodate subjects’ behaviors that are incompatible with EU and SEU.
It is important to recognize that belief functions are not being used in this way. Although probability theory can be expressed mathematically as a special case of belief functions (Shafer, Reference Shafer1976), conceptually the two are distinct. Of interest are subjects’ expressions of justification, not of likelihood. These are accepted as separate constructs. Belief functions are not applied as a weaker measure of the same likelihood construct that is captured by probability judgments. Belief functions measure a separate construct with distinguishing features, e.g., noncomplementarity.
1.1.2 Support Theory
Support Theory has recently used a construct labeled “support” as a building block of subjective probability (Rottenstreich & Tversky, Reference Rottenstreich and Tversky1997; Tversky & Koehler, Reference Tversky and Koehler1994). This can easily lead to confusion since the term has also been used to describe the construct of evidential weight (notably by Shafer, Reference Shafer1976). However, as it has been operationalized, Support Theory and the tasks to which it is applied are clearly likelihood-driven. When Tversky and Koehler directly assess “support” they do so by having subjects rate “the [basketball] team you believe is strongest” (Study 3) and “the suspiciousness of a given suspect” to a hypothetical crime (Study 4). These ratings of cues that serve as the basis for subject’s likelihood judgments, as evidenced in their experiments, are not directly equivalent to the support assessments within Dempster-Shafer theory that are the subject of this paper.
These authors explicitly acknowledge this distinction of justification and likelihood, and appropriately so, for example:
Judgments of strength of evidence, we suggest, reflect the degree to which a specific body of evidence confirms a particular hypothesis, whereas judgments of probability express the relative support for the competing hypotheses based on the judge’s general knowledge and prior belief. The two types of judgments, therefore, are expected to follow different rules. (Rottenstreich & Tversky, Reference Rottenstreich and Tversky1997, p. 413)
There is a difference in the terminology: These authors use “probability” and “relative support” to describe the likelihood-based idea of balance, and use “strength of evidence” to describe the justification-based idea of weight. Unfortunately, such differences in terminology pervade the literature. Respectively, Shafer (Reference Shafer1976) distinguishes “chance” and “support,” Shafer and Tversky (Reference Shafer and Tversky1985) distinguish “likelihood-based” or “Bayesian designs” with “Jeffrey” or “belief-function designs.” In this paper, I will generally use the terms of likelihood (truth, balance) and evidential weight (justification, support). But, amidst the terminology, the main point should not be lost. Support Theory is likelihood-driven, defined relative to a criterion of truth. Justification is a distinct criterion and measures of it have distinct characteristics.
As also noted by Tversky and colleagues, justification-based weights, in contrast to likelihood assessments, have been little studied. The current paper, and the research stream within which it fits, serves to fill this void. To operationalize the evidential weight construct, I employ Dempster-Shafer theory, the best formulated system with features appropriate for capturing evidential support in situations emphasizing justification (Shafer, Reference Shafer1976; cf. Dempster, Reference Dempster1968).
The current study demonstrates an assessment approach grounded in Dempster-Shafer theory as a basis for developing hypotheses. Curley and Golden (Reference Curley and Golden1994), using similar though cruder methods, found that nearly half of the subjects were able to consistently express beliefs that qualitatively matched hypothesized expectations based on the evidential content. Even subjects whose responses did not match the expected pattern showed consistency in their use of the language, supporting the coherence of people’s use of belief functions. Subjects also consistently responded in ways differing from the prescriptions of probability theory, finding aspects of the belief function language useful in expressing their beliefs. Golden (Reference Golden1993/4) followed by examining the reliability (using a test-retest procedure) and validity of subjects’ responses in two studies. With improvements in training, subjects showed even better qualitative consistency than was observed by Curley and Golden. Numerically, subjects also were able to respond reliably, though with room for improvement, and the validity was high relative to the reliability. Thus, the studies complemented the analysis of Briggs and Krantz (Reference Briggs and Krantz1992) in supporting the viability of belief functions from a measurement standpoint. Dempster-Shafer theory potentially offers a meaningful response measure, particularly in a qualitative sense, that is distinct from that of probability theory for use in investigating subjects’ degrees of evidential weight.
This paper demonstrates a technique using a measure from Dempster-Shafer theory, applying it to sets of evidence that are systematically constructed to get a fuller understanding of evidential weight judgments from a psychological standpoint. The next section provides a brief overview of Dempster-Shafer theory that serves as the study’s theoretical basis. Completing the paper are four sections describing key features of evidential weight to be investigated empirically, the methodology, the results, and a general discussion, respectively.
1.2 Dempster-Shafer theory
Following is a brief description of elements of Dempster-Shafer theory as it is applied here empirically. The theory is a system for qualifying one’s beliefs using numerical expressions of degrees of support. Shafer (Reference Shafer1976) provides a fuller theoretical treatment for the interested reader.
Shafer described several, inter-related measures, conveying slightly different messages about evidential weight, and the transformation functions connecting them. One of these, Bel is termed a belief function and is a commonly employed measure from the system. For example, this is the measure used by Briggs and Krantz (Reference Briggs and Krantz1992). Here, a different measure is elicited, the basic probability assignment, or what I shall call the reserve function. Both measures capture a degree of belief. The two measures have a 1–1 correspondence and are mathematically inter-transformable, so the selection for assessment is a matter of experimenter preference. The reserve function measure is chosen here as being most conceptually like probabilities. Both probabilities and reserve functions can be characterized as dividing the whole of one’s belief (1.0) into smaller elements. Consequently, the measure is believed to be an intuitive one for individuals to assess. As noted, Briggs and Krantz provide an empirical example using Bel, instead. Which of the two measures might be better for assessment is an open empirical question that is not addressed here. I do argue that the assessments obtained in this study are meaningful and informative.
For brevity of exposition, hereafter belief is used interchangeably with“degree of belief.” Other terminology from the theory that is used in this paper includes:
Frame of discernment Θ: A finite set of possible values for a variable X, such that one, and only one, element of the set is true. These elements are the possible states of nature or hypotheses. In general, the items within the frame of discernment develop as evidence accumulates, i.e., one can assign belief to Θ without specifying what elements might be contained within it. However, in this study for experimental control, the elements in the frame are given to subjects, Θ = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}.
Reserve Function: This is the name given by Ray and Krantz (Reference Ray and Krantz1996, denoted as r in their paper) to Shafer’s “basic probability assignment,” and it is adopted here. This is a non-negative, real-valued function, m, on the power set of Θ such that:
(a) m(∅) = 0, where ∅ is defined as the null or impossible event; and,
(b) Σ m(A) = 1, A ⊆ Θ.
The term reserve is borrowed from the idea of a contingency reserve in budgeting, in which money is assigned to a category without specifying how to divide it among the subcategories. Assigning m% of one’s belief to a subset in the power set of Θ can be interpreted as: “Based on the evidence, I believe with m% of my belief that the hypotheses in this set are supported; however, I cannot distinguish between the elements in the set individually.” Although this interpretation also holds for m = 0, we use the term assign belief to signify that a positive number is attached to a set. Also note that this function is connected to, but distinct from, the belief function Bel defined by Shafer:
Bel(B) = Σ m(A), for all A ⊆ B.
Singleton: A subset of the power set of Θ that contains only one element, e.g., {a}.
Simple support function: A reserve function that assigns a positive number to two and only two subsets of the power set, where one of the subsets is Θ. All evidence used in the study was designed to elicit simple support. The non-Θ subset for which the evidence was designed to elicit positive belief is called the target set of the evidence.
Multiple evidence requires an assessment of the joint impact of the evidence. In a formal theory, like probability theory, this is accomplished by a combination rule, like Bayes’s Theorem. In Dempster-Shafer theory, Dempster’s Rule is posited as a basis for assessing the joint impact of multiple evidence.
Dempster’s Rule: A method for combining two independent functions, m1 and m2, into a new function, m:
m(A) = (1 - K)−1 Σ m1(Ai)m2(Aj),
for all Ai ⊆ Θ, Aj ⊆ Θ
where Ai ∩ Aj = A; and
K = Σ m1(Ai)m2(Aj),
for all Ai ∩ Aj = ∅.
The parameter K is a measure of conflict in the evidence.
The idea behind the combination rule is that initially your belief is undifferentiated and allocated to Θ. As evidence becomes available, you partition your belief into smaller subsets. This idea is illustrated by Figure 1 for two pieces of evidence. Although shown successively, Dempster’s Rule is commutative, the order of evidence is irrelevant. (See Golden, Reference Golden1993/4, for evidence of commutativity in subjects’ assessments of evidential weight and of a discussion of other properties of Dempster’s Rule and other proposed combination rules.)
Movement of belief under Dempster’s Rule for two pieces of evidence without conflict (K=0).
Initially, there is no evidence and all support (1.0) is in the undifferentiated set Θ. As shown, the first piece of evidence implicates a and d, not differentiating between them. The function m1 moves a portion of the weight of evidence into the set {a, d} to convey this, leaving the remainder of the weight in the set Θ. How much weight is moved depends on the reliability, credibility and strength of the evidence. The second piece of evidence implicates a, b and c. The function m2 moves a portion of the weight from Θ into {a, b, c} and moves the same proportion of the weight from {a, d} to the intersection of the two sets: {a}. In this way, as evidence accumulates, support becomes differentiated into finer subsets capturing the justification for the possible evidential conclusions.
1.3 Key Aspects of Evidential Weight
We form beliefs in response to evidence; we assign degrees of belief to the extent that the evidence is not definitive. The present study demonstrates psychological aspects of subjects’ judgments of evidential weight using systematically created sets of evidence. Key characteristics for analysis in the assessment of justification are identified in this section.
1.3.1 Inconclusiveness
As noted earlier, an important difference between likelihood and support is the noncomplementarity of evidential weight. If the evidence does not justify A, this does not necessarily imply justification for not-A. Instead, the evidence may be silent with respect to either. For example, if evidence of questionable reliability supports A, we would qualify the justification it provides for A based on the evidence’s unreliability. We would not, however, then transfer the remainder of its justification to not-A. To the extent the evidence is unreliable, it does not implicate either A or not-A.
Relatedly, the representation of ignorance has been a controversial topic in the use of probability theory (e.g., DeGroot, Reference DeGroot1970; Winkler, Reference Winkler1972). Having a natural means of expressing ignorance, by assigning belief to the superset Θ may prove to be an attractive, intuitive feature of belief functions. The degree of belief m(Θ) represents one’s undifferentiated belief that is withheld in complete reserve, expressing nonsupport for any subset of possibilities, e.g., due to evidential unreliability.
If individuals view inconclusiveness as a meaningful aspect of support, then a sensible and persistent use of m(Θ) should be observed. First, since the evidence in the study is inconclusive, subjects should generally assign belief to Θ to communicate this. Second, as evidence accumulates and becomes more conclusive, m(Θ) should decrease. Not all theories of support have this latter property. For example, Dubois and Prade (Reference Dubois and Prade1986) proposed an averaging rule in which the m(Θ) of combined evidence is proposed to be intermediate to the m(Θ) of the individual pieces of evidence. This rule corresponds to a leveling of support rather than a focusing of support as the underlying psychology in accumulating support.
1.3.2 Conflict
Another key issue in understanding justification is the reaction to evidential conflict. Consider Figure 2, showing an example of support with conflicting evidence. Evidence 1 provides simple support for {d}. It is fairly strong evidence, though inconclusive with m1(d) = .70.Footnote 1 Evidence 2 is of more moderate strength and implicates {g} with m2(g) = .40. Clearly, the evidence is conflicting, implicating disjoint sets of possibilities. Applying Dempster’s Rule for independent pieces of evidence, the resulting weight of conflict is K = .28 (Figure 2a).
Movement of belief where evidence creates conflict (K>0) under (b) Dempster’s Rule and (c) the Conflict-to-Θ Rule.
Two general possible reactions are that one can react to conflict with continued confidence in the evidence or by pulling back support. Formal rules corresponding to each of these psychological reactions have been proposed. The rules receiving best support in a preliminary study (Golden Reference Golden1993/4) are highlighted here, and represent these two divergent psychological approaches to conflict. The rules are not claimed as descriptive in the sense that individuals are presumed to perform the calculations of the combination rules. However, as capturing different approaches to conflict, the rules provide useful standards of comparison for contrasting the underlying psychological theories.
Dempster’s Rule exemplifies a rule capturing continued confidence in the evidence by distributing conflict proportionally into already implicated sets (Figure 2b). Following this normalization, m(Θ) = .25, less than both m1(Θ) = .30 and m2(Θ) = .60. It is easily shown that these strict inequalities will hold whenever the evidence is inconclusive, mi(Θ) > 0 for i = 1, 2. The attitude is one of: “I know there is conflict, but my beliefs are still sound, just not focused yet.”
Since Dempster’s Rule does embody implicit claims about how people assign evidential weight, other researchers have questioned these claims and proposed alternative combination schemes. One alternative is a Conflict-to-Θ Rule (Yager, Reference Yager1987). The rule operates like Dempster’s Rule, except when there is conflict, K > 0. Instead of normalizing, the rule assigns all of K to Θ, as shown by Figure 2c. Thus, the rule captures indecisiveness as the psychological reaction to conflict. The attitude is one of: “The conflict indicates that I do not know what is happening. It reflects indeterminacy and my ignorance. Thus, I should pull my belief back into Θ.” For this rule, in the example, the combined m(Θ) = .46 after adjustment. In this case, the value is greater than m1(Θ) = .30. Although, this does not necessarily happen, we see here that the rule allows the possibility of greater indecisiveness with increasing evidence, in marked contrast to the attitude embodied in Dempster’s Rule.
Golden (Reference Golden1993/4) reported evidence that subjects in aggregate behaved midway between Dempster’s Rule and the Conflict-to-Θ Rule, with no support for other tested rules. The present study allows an individual-level analysis to investigate how individual subjects react to conflict.
1.3.3 Simplification
Evaluating evidence becomes increasingly complex as evidence accumulates, even more so in assessing justification than likelihood. For belief functions the possible number of assessments increases exponentially with the number of distinct alternatives. For example, if Θ contains seven separable alternatives, then no more than seven probability assessments are needed, but as many as (27 - 1) = 127 positive reserve numbers (values of m) may be applied. Thus, the number of values can quickly exceed the capacity of an individual to maintain information in working memory (Miller’s, Reference Miller1956, 7 ± 2).
Given the limitation, subjects likely will simplify their reserve functions with the accumulation of evidence of differing implications. However, subjects should do so in a reasoned, not haphazard, manner, maintaining main lines of implication while truncating others. Of interest is this purposiveness as it exists: What strategies do individuals employ to simplify the lines of justification without sacrificing important information?
In sum, the study demonstrates the use of belief functions, using the reserve function form, for communicating evidential weight, while addressing three psychological concerns:
• How do subjects communicate inconclusiveness?
• How do subjects react to conflict, particularly do they tend to show continued confidence in the evidence or pull back support?
• How do subjects simplify complex evidential weight?
The study addresses these questions using an established task and systematically varied sets of evidence. The more extensive evidence sets also allow individual-level analyses, affording the possibility of identifying individual differences in behavior with respect to these questions.
2 Method
2.1 Subjects
Sixty-six non-law graduate students at the University of Minnesota voluntarily participated in the study. The subjects engaged in a juror-type task, evaluating evidence in a hypothetical legal setting and requiring no special law experience. They were paid a fixed fee for participating in a single session lasting less than two hours. Each subject was in the session individually with a single experimenter.
2.2 Procedure
The experimental procedure began with a training session that provided subjects with instruction in the language of reserve functions. The Appendix contains the full training materials. These materials were similar to those employed by Golden (Reference Golden1993/4); and, the training case was similar to the experimental case. It involved the same task as described in Table 1, but for a different crime description — an auto theft. Aside from familiarizing the subjects with the task, the training instructed subjects in the vocabulary of the belief function language. That is, given a belief, how could a subject express this belief in the theory’s language? And conversely, given a reserve function, what does it communicate? The order and content of training involved instructions about:
• The task (Table 1)
• What it means to assign belief to a set of suspects, e.g., selecting the set {B, D} “represents your belief that either Suspect B or Suspect D is guilty, but based on the evidence, you cannot differentiate this belief between the two suspects.”
• The response form (Table 2), demonstrated for single pieces of evidence
• Seven examples pairing text descriptions of beliefs with the belief functions that communicate these descriptions.
• Practice case, Part 1: The subject responded to four individual pieces of evidence for an auto theft case similar to the upcoming experimental case.
• Practice case, Part 2: The subject responded to four pairs of evidence for the auto theft case.
The subjects were not schooled in any particular form of reserve function, and were informed that there was no right or wrong belief given the evidence. They also were not instructed in any particular way of combining evidence when responding to more than one piece of evidence. Golden (Reference Golden1993/4) used a post-training quiz to check subjects’ understanding after training. All subjects (total N = 64) achieved sufficient mastery, so the quiz was not employed in the current study.
Following the training, subjects read a page describing the hypothetical situation to which the evidence related and the role that they were to take in responding to the evidence (Table 1). Each subject then responded in succession to 18 single pieces of evidence, 4 evidence pairs and 17 evidence triples. The pairs and triples were constructed using items from the 18 single pieces of evidence. The stimuli are described below.
Subjects first received a stimulus booklet containing the 18 single pieces of evidence, each on a separate page. They responded to each piece of evidence in turn and in isolation, separately from all preceding evidence. Each single evidence was numbered consecutively, and the responses were recorded on a separate response booklet. In providing their responses, subjects were advised during the training to first identify which sets should be assigned belief and then to assign the numerical beliefs to these sets. Thus, the qualitative assessment of identifying the implicated sets preceded and was separate from the quantitative assessment.
After completing the first stimulus booklet, the subjects received a second stimulus booklet with the four evidence pairs (which appeared first) and the 17 evidence triples . For the pairs and triples, stimuli and response forms were in the same booklet. Evidence used in the stimuli were numbered to match the numbering used in the single-evidence booklet. Subjects could refer back to their single-evidence response booklet to check their responses while going through the pairs and triples booklet. This capability was described during the training.
After completing the second booklet, subjects were debriefed and paid.
2.3 Stimuli
Subjects responded to single pieces, pairs, and triples of evidence. The structure by which the evidence sets were constructed is now described.
2.3.1 Single evidence
The materials were adapted from those tested by Curley and Golden (Reference Curley and Golden1994) and Golden (Reference Golden1993/4). Table 1 describes the experimental situation and the subjects’ assigned role. Subjects saw 18 single pieces of evidence. Table 3 contains brief descriptions of the content of the 18 pieces of evidence. Subjects saw paragraph descriptions of each. For each piece of evidence, subjects received information for each of the seven possible suspects. They responded using a response table like that in Table 2. The information was constructed to provide simple support, implicating a single target set of suspects. For example, the following piece of evidence (Fired from Job) provides support for target set {a, b, e}:
Note: N = 66 subjects for each mean and standard deviation.
Some of the suspects had been recently fired from PSV Enterprises by Mr. Bensten. The reason Mr. Bensten gave for the firings was that the employees had inadequate quality of work. The firings cost each of the men approximately $40,000.
Each subject saw each of the 18 pieces of evidence in Table 3 and saw evidence implicating 18 target sets. The pairing of target sets to evidence content was randomized, and the order of evidence presentation was also randomized.
The single pieces of evidence were selectively combined into sets of evidence containing two or three pieces of evidence.
2.3.2 Evidence Pairs
For two pieces of evidence, there are four possible combination forms associated with target sets, disregarding the order of evidence and specific evidence content. The target sets for the two pieces of evidence may be either identical, embedded, intersecting, or disjoint. Examples of each are given and illustrated in Figure 3:
(a) Identical: {d} {d}
(b) Embedded: {a, d} {d}
(c) Intersecting: {a, e} {a, f}
(d) Disjoint: {d} {g}
Possible structures for pairs of evidence.
The particular target sets were also selected so that each of the regions in Figure 3 contains a single suspect. Each subject responded to one of each of these structures, involving eight separate single pieces of evidence from among those seen earlier.Footnote 2 Recall that the content of the evidence items was randomly varied across subjects. Presentation order of the pair structures was also randomized.
2.3.3 Evidence Triples
For three pieces of evidence, there are 34 possible combination forms, disregarding evidence order and specific content. Testing all of these combinations requires 18 separate pieces of evidence (which led to the selection of the 18 used as single pieces of evidence). Again, evidence content and presentation order were randomized. Also, to stay within a reasonable time frame for a single session, each subject saw 17 evidence triples. Selection of 17 of 34 triples was randomized so that each of the 34 triple structures was assessed by 33 subjects.Footnote 3 (The use of 66 subjects was motivated by this randomization design.)
Examples of four of the evidence triple structures are given and illustrated in Figure 4. Again, note that the particular target sets were selected so that each of the regions in Figure 4 (and for all other triple structures) contains a single suspect.
Sample of (4 of 34) possible structures for triples of evidence.
3 Results
3.1 Validity
All single pieces of evidence seen by subjects were designed to provide simple support. The degree to which subjects perceived the evidence in terms of simple support can be used as a qualitative measure of structural validity, i.e., a meaningfulness measure which does not rely on the numerical responses but simply on the sets that are assigned belief — the qualitative structure of the responses. Overall, 95% (1123/1188, 18 pieces of evidence × 66 subjects) of responses to single pieces of evidence were structurally valid, assigning belief only to the target set and/or Θ. This exceeds the 59% found by Curley and Golden (Reference Curley and Golden1994) and is comparable to the 92% and 96% found in the two experiments reported by Golden (Reference Golden1993/4). From a methodological perspective, the comparisons indicate: (a) the improvement in training materials after the first empirical effort by Curley and Golden, and (b) the success in streamlining the training materials after Golden’s study without loss of meaning. Unlike Curley and Golden, there were no consistent non-structurally valid response patterns. In particular, subjects did not respond with consistent use of the complement of the target set or consistent use of non-target singletons.
Thus, subjects saw evidence as effecting a movement of support into the implicated set. The subjects did not overextend this support into smaller subsets than was warranted by the evidence or into sets that were not directly implicated. They also did not reply in a way mimicking probability assessment (though such a function was seen during training, see Example #5 in the Appendix).
Table 3 shows the mean beliefs assigned to the target set for the content of each of the individual pieces of evidence. As to numerical validity, the orderings of the means are reasonable relative to the content of the evidence. There are no obvious misalignments in the data.
3.2 Inconclusiveness
There was a high use of Θ across all subjects. For single pieces of evidence and evidence pairs, 91% of the reserve functions assigned belief to Θ. For the evidence triples, 77% of the responses assigned positive belief to Θ. Overall, mean m(Θ) declined as evidence accumulated from .53 for singles (n = 1188, s = .32) to .32 for pairs (n = 264, s = .27), and .20 for triples (n = 1122, s = .23). Subjects commonly used this ability to communicate that the evidence as a whole was not conclusive. Inconclusiveness is an evidential weight concept, not available in probability assessment, that was meaningful to the subjects.
As a cleaner view of this tendency, consider responses to accumulating evidence in favor of a single target element: for a single piece of evidence, the evidence pair in Figure 3a, and the evidence triple in Figure 4b. For these responses, the mean m(Θ) declined with accumulating evidence from 0.53 to 0.31 to 0.21. Individually, of the 33 subjects responding to the triple in Figure 4b, 22 (67%) decreased m(Θ) from single to pair and from pair to triple. This tendency is consistent with the claim of theories like Dempster’s Rule and the Conflict-to-Θ Rule. In contrast, only 1/33 (3%) responded consistently with an averaging approach both to the evidence pair and to the evidence triple, giving a cumulative response that was intermediate to the component single evidence responses in both cases.
3.3 Conflict
In considering methods of combining the support provided by multiple evidence, we distinguish situations that involve conflict from those that do not. One pair of evidence (66 responses) and fourteen triples (458 responses = 14 × 33 subjects/triple, with 4 missingFootnote 4) involved structural conflict. To compare subjects’ responses, focus is on the weight attached to Θ. It is in the assignment to Θ that the rules most markedly differ in a way that is informative of how the respondents reacted to that conflict (Figure 2).
Overall, in response to conflicting evidence, subject’s mean m(Θ) = .27. From applying Dempster’s Rule to the responses for the single pieces of evidence, the expected mean m(Θ) = .25. From applying the Conflict-to-Θ Rule to the responses for the single pieces of evidence, the expected mean m(Θ) = .44. These means suggest a closer correspondence of aggregate behavior with Dempster’s Rule. Of the 524 total m(Θ) responses, 297 were closer to the value predicted by Dempster’s Rule whereas 121 were closer to the value predicted by the Conflict-to-Θ Rule (the remainder were equidistant). Thus, the single best descriptive model in the aggregate is provided by Dempster’s Rule.
However, a better picture of how subjects handled support in the face of conflict arises from individual-level analyses that are possible with the current design. The distribution of the m(Θ) responses relative to the predictions from the two rules as applied to the responses for single pieces of evidence is shown in Table 4.
Thus, although the aggregate response is intermediate to the two rules, fully 2/3 of the responses are more extreme than either rule, with 219 responses expressing even more conclusiveness than Dempster’s Rule, and 127 expressing less conclusiveness than the Conflict-to-Θ Rule.
Further individual-level analysis suggests two identifiable subgroups of individuals. For the analysis, each of the 524 responses was categorized as in one of the six categories labeled (a)-(f) above. For each subject, I then asked whether the subject had a modal response category among (a)-(f) with which he or she responded consistently at a greater than chance rate (binomial test using one-tailed α = .05). Of 66 subjects, 25 could be classified as having a consistent response pattern; the distribution of these subjects relative to the two rules is:
(a) 10 subjects: m(Θ) < Dempster’s Rule
(b) 7 subjects: Dempster’s < m(Θ) < Conflict-to-Θ
(c) 8 subjects: Conflict-to-Θ Rule < m(Θ)
Groups (a) and (c), those with the lowest and highest m(Θ), both had more significant (p<.05) results than would be expected by chance, 10 and 8, respectively, out of 56, when the expectation would be about 3. In fact, they had significantly more such results, by a binomial test (p<.01 for both). This result suggests that individual differences were real. The mean (standard deviation) values for m(Θ) for the three groups are:
(a) .29 (.25)
(b) .16 (.12)
(c) .56 (.23).
In comparison, the mean (standard deviation) values of m(Θ) as predicted from applying Dempster’s Rule to the single evidence responses are:
(a) .41 (.26)
(b) .10 (.12)
(c) .37 (.26).
Thus, the 17 subjects responding below (Group a) and just above (Group b) Dempster’s Rule are behaving similarly and qualitatively like Dempster’s Rule. These subjects reliably react to conflict by continuing to move their support downward into the implicated subsets. Those behaving below (Group a), as opposed to above (Group b), Dempster’s Rule basically differ in being less conclusive in their responses to the single pieces of evidence. That is, those subjects who were more extreme in moving evidence downward away from Θ compared to Dempster’s Rule (Group a) were less conclusive with single pieces of evidence (as indicated by a higher m(Θ) applying Dempster’s Rule). Those subjects who were less extreme in moving evidence downward from Θ compared to Dempster’s Rule (Group b) were more conclusive in their responses to single pieces of evidence (as indicated by a lower m(Θ) applying Dempster’s Rule). This latter group may be showing a floor effect: Having largely moved belief away from Θ for the single pieces of evidence (mean m(Θ) = .10), there was little room to further move belief from Θ with multiple pieces of evidence (mean m(Θ) = .16). But, the main point is that subjects in both Groups (a) and (b) reacted similarly to conflict: They tended to react with continued confidence in the evidence even with conflict, similarly to how Dempster’s Rule operates.
In contrast, the eight subjects who reliably responded with an m(Θ) at the high end (Group c) behaved qualitatively more like the Conflict-to-Θ Rule. They responded similarly to Group (a) subjects for single pieces of evidence, but they reacted differently under conflict. For the Group (c) subjects, conflict led to indecisiveness. Faced with conflict, they tended to withhold their belief, as expressed by their increasing support to Θ.
3.4 Simplification
As evidence accumulates, its evaluation becomes increasingly complex. Given the well-established cognitive limitations of humans to deal with the resultant complexity in all its detail, some means of simplification is cognitively desirable. And, as humans are adaptive, it is believed that subjects simplify in a sensible, not haphazard, manner.
An overall view of whether subjects simplified their lines of implication is provided by Figure 5 in an analysis of subjects’ responses to triples of evidence, where complexity is likely to be present if at all. For a given evidence structure, some number of sets are expected to get positive belief aside from Θ. The expected number of target sets implicated by the evidence ranges from 1 to 7 for the different structures of evidence triples used in the study, as shown on the x-axis. For example, the triple in Figure 4a has four expected target sets: {a,b,d,e}, {a,b}, {b,d}, and {b}. On the y-axis is the mean, across subjects, of the actual number of sets that are assigned belief for each of the 34 triple structures used in the study. A quadratic regression model shows significant curvature, with the quadratic coefficient β2 being less than zero. This same quadratic pattern appears in analyses of the data from individual subjects. For the individual analyses, H0: β2 ≥ 0, for the quadratic model, is rejected at the 0.05 level for 57/66 subjects and at the 0.10 level for 61/66 subjects.
Regression curve (dark line) compared to the identity line (thin line) for the mean number of target sets versus the expected number. Data points are the values for each of the 34 evidence triples.
Basically, what the analyses support is a simplification of lines of implication, reducing the number of sets receiving support compared to theoretical expectations. Subjects are somehow focusing their attention to certain lines of implication while truncating others. It is now of interest to investigate the logic of the simplification through analysis for sets of differing cardinality and the use of singletons.
3.4.1 Cardinality
A general overview of how simplification is happening arises from viewing the distribution of subjects’ beliefs across sets of different cardinality. The number of elements in a target set can range from 1 to 7, e.g., the target set {a,b,d,e} has four elements and Θ has 7 elements. Table 5 displays how subjects distributed their belief across the possible set sizes when responding to three pieces of evidence. The table compares responses for evidence triples to expectations based on applying Dempster’s Rule to the single evidence responses. Overall, the subjects moved their belief into sets of size 1, i.e., singletons. They used fewer sets of sizes 2–4 and assigned less belief to these set sizes than would be expected from Dempster’s Rule. This pattern of response was mainly observed when there was no structural conflict in the evidence.
1 Sample sizes for use of the paired differences test, t(n-1), comparing actual mean belief for the evidence triple to the mean belief predicted by applying Dempster’s Rule to the single evidence responses. Only responses with positive values for either the actual or predicted belief are included in this analysis.
* p < .05
** p < .01
*** p < .0001.
Thus, subjects have a tendency to move their support into singletons as much as possible, particularly when there is no conflict in the evidence. (The individual differences in patterns of behavior under conflict have already been discussed above.) This greater use of singletons parallels the application of a likelihood measure like probability theory that applies belief only to singletons. Therefore, further investigation of how the subjects assign support to singletons is of particular interest.
3.4.2 Singletons
As a first look, we can isolate for each structure every singleton that received positive belief from at least one subject. Some of these are target singletons, i.e., singletons that were expected to receive belief based on the structure of the evidence. (For example, for the triple illustrated by Figure 4a, {b} is a target singleton, and for the triple in Figure 4d, {d}, {e}, and {f} are target singletons.) All target singletons for all evidence triples received belief. Other, non-target singletons also sometimes received belief. Table 6a shows the mean evidential weight (
) across all subjects and singletons, for each singleton that received positive belief in response to evidence triples. The means are separated between target and non-target singletons. The means are also separated by the number of pieces of evidence in the triple that implicated the element in the singleton. As an example, for the triple in Figure 4d, the sets {d}, {e}, and {f} are target singletons and are each implicated by two pieces of evidence, e.g., {d} is implicated by {a, d, e} and {d, f}. For this triple, eight subjects also assigned positive belief to {a}. This is a non-target singleton implicated by one piece of evidence: {a, d, e}.
As expected, higher weight is attached to singletons which are implicated by more evidence. This effect is particularly pronounced for target singletons. The same increasing pattern also obtains for the numbers of subjects who assign belief to the singletons (Table 6b). More subjects assign more evidential weight to singletons implicated by more evidence. Subjects are identifying and placing support upon the target elements.
Another interesting result was that, primarily, only two types of singletons received positive belief across the variety of evidence structures shown to subjects. The first type was a target singleton as noted above. Of the possible target singletons across all subjects and evidence sets, 70% received positive belief as expected. All 66/66 subjects used at least one target singleton in their responses. When the evidence pointed to a particular possibility, subjects identified this and focused belief on this possibility.
The second type of singleton that received positive belief was a difference singleton: For some structures, a non-singleton set shared one or more elements with one or another implicated set. In this case, subjects sometimes would strip the common elements from the sets and attach positive belief to the set difference. For example, instead of assigning belief to implicated sets {a, d} and {d), the subject may assign belief to the difference singleton {a} and the target singleton {d}. Overall, in 29% of the cases where such a difference assignment is possible, subjects do this. Most (62/66) subjects used at least one difference singleton.
And, with only one exception, these were the only singletons that subjects used. This suggests that the subjects clearly distinguished weight from likelihood; they distinguished belief functions from probabilities. They did not universally carry the use of singletons within probability theory into their assessments of evidential weight. Yet, they still did see an advantage to moving belief into singletons to communicate their weight judgments. A plausible hypothesis is that subjects are motivated by a need for action. The situation is one in which only one of the possibilities is true. At some point, it is desirable to cease evaluation and make a decision, in favor of a particular alternative. Focusing support on singletons that are directly implicated by the evidence could be occurring in anticipation of decision making and action taking.
3.4.3 Summary of simplification patterns
Simplification does occur and it is not haphazard. First, subjects reduce the number of sets that they assign belief as the number of target sets increases, exhibiting simplification of their judged support. There are increased individual differences in the particular sets used as complexity goes up; however, this variation is mainly along the periphery. In the midst of this diversity is considerable consistency across subjects in their judgments. Subjects maintain contact with the main lines of implication provided by the evidence, with an overall average of 81% of their belief going to Θ and the target sets. The main deviation from the use of target elements is in a tendency to use singletons; but still, the singletons used are those related to the target sets. Only target and difference singletons are assigned belief. This tendency toward using singletons may be useful in supporting action in the face of evidence.
4 Discussion
As noted in the Introduction, research in Dempster-Shafer theory has primarily been directed at applications in artificial intelligence and expert systems. Although this literature deals with different issues, it does highlight the potential of evidential weight as a construct. After all, why is there interest in using belief functions in intelligent systems instead of probabilities at all? A primary reason was well argued by Shafer and Tversky (Reference Shafer and Tversky1985) who conceptualized response measures as languages with which decision makers qualify their beliefs. The different languages may capture different aspects of belief scaling, and be more or less appropriate in different situations. Another general perspective supporting the study of belief functions is the cognitive model of probability assessment first presented by Smith, Benson, and Curley (Reference Smith, Benson and Curley1991). They noted how qualifiers, e.g., probabilities or belief function measures, arise from a process of reasoning toward the formation of a belief. To the extent that the belief cannot be established with certainty, judgmental processes are often used to evaluate the evidence and arguments used to arrive at the belief. Since the uncertainty in the belief-formation process can arise from several sources, e.g., evidential unreliability, evidential incompleteness, or argument strength, alternative measures might be useful in differentially emphasizing these aspects.
The two aspects of belief highlighted in this paper have a long history in the distinction between Pascalian probability and Baconian probability, between the balance and weight of evidence. Whereas probabilities have been conceptualized as capturing balance or likelihood (what is the truth value of belief X?), belief functions were developed for capturing evidential weight or support (what is the justification for belief X?). Individuals’ responses with the language of belief functions are used to inform our understanding of judgments of evidential weight. The current study demonstrates the application and applicability of the language. In so doing, this paper can motivate and facilitate ongoing investigation of the use of weight-based measures of evidence.
In addition, the study highlighted psychological aspects of how individuals judge evidential weight as communicated using the reserve function (m) language. Primary is the observation that subjects’ responses did indeed suggest a differentiation between likelihood and evidential weight. Although the belief function system does allow subjects to respond in a likelihood fashion (e.g., using only singletons, see Appendix, Example #5), or in ways that approximate likelihoods (e.g., using complementary sets), the subjects did not generally do so. Subjects’ support primarily rested upon the sets which the evidence targeted. Lack of support was conveyed by holding belief in reserve (particularly in Θ), and not by spreading belief among sets as with likelihoods.
Next, within this targeting, evidential weight does however tend toward singletons. This may arise as a preparation for action. Alternatively, this movement of evidential weight may be an exaggeration of the general movement of weight into smaller sets with increasing evidence. It is in this way that likelihood and evidential weight, although they differ, may often correlate. Likelihood judgments also will tend to follow the implications of the evidence.
The use of singletons also raises an interesting methodological possibility. Perhaps singletons can be used in a shorthand assessment technique that still usefully communicates individuals’ ideas of evidential weight in a streamlined fashion. Specifically, the technique might offer subjects singletons and Θ as sets for assigning belief (using appropriate lay language). The beliefs attached to singletons would capture the main lines of belief movement, and the belief attached to Θ would capture the degree of justification (lack thereof). The use of evidence structures, as employed in the current design, would be useful in studying the robustness of such a procedure.
Next, of particular interest in the study’s design were sets of evidence for which the items differed in their implications. Schum (Reference Schum1994) distinguished two ways in which evidence can be dissonant. With contradictory evidence, two reports of the same event disagree, e.g., when one witness testifies that the event did occur and another testifies that it did not occur. The evidence in the current study was conflicting evidence, i.e., evidence concerning different events that favor different hypotheses. As noted by Schum, conflicting evidence is the more complicated case. The resolution of contradictory evidence hinges exclusively on the credibility of the dissonant evidential sources. A further distinction is made by Ray and Krantz (Reference Ray and Krantz1996) between two types of schematic conflict in scientific inference. With schematic conflict the same evidence is interpreted in different ways, according to different schemata applied by different people or modeling assumptions. Schematic conflict would lead to contradictory evidence in Schum’s terms.
Of note here is that the present results pertain to conflicting evidence and do not necessarily generalize to the case of contradiction. For example, whereas no evidence of averaging occurred in the support given with conflict, averaging may occur under contradiction (cf. Ray & Krantz, Reference Ray and Krantz1996; Troutman & Shanteau, Reference Troutman and Shanteau1977).
Finally, the design of the study facilitated individual-level analyses that allowed us to identify interesting individual differences in the assignment of evidential weight, particularly under conflict. Dempster’s Rule appears to capture an aspect of the modal response to conflict among the subjects: Most subjects responded to conflicting evidence by continuing to move support into implicated sets. The subjects did not show a reduction in the degree of support moved from Θ; instead, they exhibited a decisiveness with accumulating evidence even when it conflicts. In contrast, an identifiable minority of subjects reacted to conflict with indecisiveness. For these subjects, conflict caused a decrease in the support to identifiable subsets. Arguably, these subjects would require a greater amount of evidence than the other subjects to counteract this tendency in support. Of interest for future research would be to check such implications for the connection between judgments of evidential weight (perhaps in conjunction with judgments of likelihood) and action, e.g., evidence gathering and choice.
Appendix: Training session
[Conducted after finishing the consent form. These instructions were read by the experimenter while the subject followed along in a training booklet. Contents from the training booklet are shown in the tables of this appendix.]
Overview
This experiment is interested in studying a system for expressing the beliefs you form after reading evidence in a hypothetical legal case. During this experiment you will be asked to perform a couple of tasks that involve reading a sketch of a legal case and then evaluating evidence and combinations of evidence related to that case. The first thing that I will do is explain how the experiment will proceed, and then I will explain the system I want you to use to express your beliefs about the evidence.
Experimental layout
You will read a brief sketch of a murder case. The case has seven suspects that will be referred to by the letters A,B,C,D,E,F, & G. There are a few things that you should know about the case. First, the police are absolutely certain that one, and only one, of the suspects committed the murder. Second, you will be asked to evaluate a number of individual pieces of evidence, you should evaluate each individual piece as if it is the only piece of evidence known to you. Finally, you will be asked to evaluate various combinations of evidence, you should evaluate each combination as if the evidence in the combination is the only evidence known to you.
Do you have any questions about how the experiment will proceed or anything else that I have explained thus far? The top of the first page of your booklet [here as Table A1] contains a list of the important points to aid you in recalling the details of the experiment.
Explanation of belief functions
Now that you understand how the experiment will proceed, we will discuss the system you will use to express your beliefs about the suspects. The system uses sets of letters to represent combinations of the seven suspects in the case.
Some of the possible sets are shown on the bottom of your booklet [here as Table A1]. Take a couple of minutes to look at the page, and then we will discuss the meaning of some of the sets on the page.
If a set contains only one element such as the set {A}, then that set represents your belief that Suspect A is guilty. That is, you believe that the evidence justifies and differentiates the guilt of Suspect A apart from the other suspects. However, if a set has more than one element such as the set {B,D}, then that set represents your belief that the evidence justifies the guilt of either Suspect B or Suspect D, but you are not able to be more specific about which particular suspect is guilty based on the evidence. That is, you believe that the evidence justifies and differentiates the guilt of Suspects B and D apart from the other five suspects, but you cannot differentiate between Suspects B and D. Likewise, whenever a set contains more than one element that set represents your belief that the evidence justifies the guilt of the suspects in that set, but the evidence does not enable you to be more specific or differentiating about which of the suspects in the set is guilty.
The final set on the page is the set {A,B,C,D,E,F,G}. This set represents your belief that you are unable to differentiate between any of the suspects. The set {A,B,C,D,E,F,G} is important and can be thought about in a couple of ways. One way to think of the set is as the amount of belief that you would want to withhold until further evidence might be available. Hence, if the evidence is not conclusive you may want to withhold assigning belief to any smaller subset of suspects. A second and similar way to think about the set {A,B,C,D,E,F,G} is as a measure of the amount of inconclusiveness in the evidence. That is, to the extent that the evidence is inconclusive you assign belief to the set {A,B,C,D,E,F,G}.
As is often times the case in life, the evidence available may not lead to a belief that can be expressed with certainty. Likewise, the evidence in these legal cases may not lead you to definitive conclusions. Hence, you may want to express degrees-of-belief, or partial belief, in a number of the sets. To understand how you might do this consider your belief as a whole equal to 1. To assign degrees-of-belief you split or divide your belief into parts or fractions that can be given to various sets to better represent your beliefs. Assigning 0% of your belief to a set means that you have no evidence which leads you to believe the guilty suspect is in that set, as opposed to some other set. Assigning 100% of your belief to a set means that the evidence convinces you with absolute certainty that the guilty suspect is in that set. So, for a particular piece of evidence the larger the number that you assign to a set, the greater your belief that the guilty person is in that set.
Let’s consider an example. Suppose you read a piece of evidence that makes you believe that only Suspect A is guilty; however the evidence is not conclusive. You could then assign some portion of your belief to the set {A}, let’s say .4, or 40% of your belief. Now the remaining .6 or 60% your belief is the amount that you wish to withhold because you feel it represents the inconclusiveness in the evidence. That portion of your belief can be assigned to the set {A,B,C,D,E,F,G}.
Do you understand this example? Do you understand the explanation of the sets, and the ability to divide up your belief and assign that belief to various sets to represent your belief in the guilt of suspects? Do you have any questions about anything we have discussed thus far?
Examples of Belief Functions
We will now consider some additional examples. However before the examples, look at page 2 of your booklet [the page contained several response areas like those shown in Table 2 in the text]. This page shows the answer form from the first part of the experiment on which you will record your degrees-of-belief for the individual pieces of evidence. Now let’s consider some examples of how this answer form is used. If you have any questions feel free to ask.
Let’s suppose that there was a piece of evidence that was entirely inconclusive, meaning that the evidence did not cause you to believe any of the suspects were guilty. We can see from Example #1 [shown in Table A2, the other examples had similar displays in the training booklet] that the proper way to assign belief would be to assign all of your belief to the set {A,B,C,D,E,F,G}, because while the police and you are certain that one of the suspects is guilty, you believe that the evidence does not help to differentiate between the suspects. You’ll notice that we’ve removed the brackets around the sets for convenience. Do you have any questions about this example?
Example #1 You believe that the evidence is totally inconclusive, and it does not cause you to believe that any of the suspects are guilty.
Now let’s consider Example #2, this time the evidence is conclusive that Suspect B is the guilty person. How do you represent this belief? We can see from the answer form that you would assign all of your belief to the set {B}. Do you understand this example?
A very similar example is Example #3. Here let’s suppose that the evidence is again conclusive, however this time it points to three suspects, Suspect A, Suspect D and Suspect F. The evidence makes you positive that either Suspect A, Suspect D or Suspect F is guilty but you are unable to distinguish between the three suspects. The appropriate way to represent your belief that Suspect A, D or F committed the crime is to assign all of your belief to the set {A,D,F}. Do you have any questions about this example?
Example #4 is another example where the evidence is conclusive. However, this time the evidence causes you to believe that Suspect A, Suspect B and Suspect D could not possibly be guilty. Thus, if you think that it is impossible for Suspects A, or B and D to be guilty, then Suspects C, E, F, or G must be guilty. Because you know that one of the seven Suspects is guilty and the evidence causes you to rule out Suspects A, B and D, you therefore conclude that Suspect C, E, F or G must be guilty although you can not discriminate between the four suspects. Do you have any questions about this example?
In Example #5 we will suppose that the evidence causes you to believe with .25 or 25% of your belief that Suspect C is guilty, with another .25 or 25% of your belief it causes you to think that Suspect E is guilty, with another .25 or 25% of your belief it causes you to think that Suspect F is guilty, and with the remaining .25 or 25% of your belief you believe that Suspect G is guilty. The appropriate way to represent this belief is shown. The importance of this example is to help you to understand how this example is different from Example #4. Notice in Example #4 your total belief was that Suspect C, E, F or G is guilty but that the evidence did not allow you to distinguish between Suspects C, E, F, & G. However, in Example #5 the evidence does allow you to distinguish between Suspects C, E, F & G, and so your belief is assigned to the specific, individual suspects. Is this example clear to you, and do you understand the difference between Examples #4 and #5?
In example #6 we will suppose that the evidence causes you to believe with .4 or 40% of your belief that Suspect A, B, or D is guilty, although you can not differentiate between the suspects. Notice that while only .4 or 40% of your belief is given to Suspects A, B, and D, the remaining .6 or 60% of your belief is given to the set {A,B,C,D,E,F,G}. This set is a measure of the inconclusiveness of the evidence and the amount of belief you want to withhold awaiting further evidence. Do you have any questions about this example?
In the final example, we suppose that the evidence causes you to believe with .3 or 30% of your belief that Suspect B or D is guilty, although you can not discriminate between the two suspects. You also believe with .4 or 40% of your belief that Suspect A, B, or D is guilty, although you can not distinguish between the three suspects. Finally, because you do not think that the evidence is conclusive you assign your remaining belief, .3 or 30% to the set {A,B,C,D,E,F,G}. Do you have any questions about this example, any of the other examples, or any other forms for expressing your beliefs?
As you can see there are many possible ways to combine the sets to express your beliefs, and I have tried to show you some of the forms. However, please be aware that I did not show all the possible forms and that during the experiment you may want to use a more complex or different form to express your belief. If this should be the case, please use the form that you feel best represents your beliefs. There is no right or wrong belief, so please appropriately express whatever belief you form after reading and evaluating the evidence.
Practice cases
Now to help you get some practice using this system for expressing your beliefs you are asked to evaluate evidence in a practice case. This practice case serves two purposes: 1) The practice case is very similar in form to the case in the actual experiment, so it allows you to familiarize yourself with the format of the experiment; 2) As you evaluate the evidence in the practice case you will be asked to talk aloud and tell me what the evidence causes you to believe, and I will then check to see that the form of the belief that you write matches the form of the belief that you verbalize. Feel free to ask questions at any time.
[Following these instructions:
a. Subjects complete the Practice Case, Part 1 booklet [described below], and any questions are addressed.
b. They respond to the single pieces of evidence.
c. Subjects complete the Practice Case, Part 2 booklet, and any questions are addressed. This booklet contained four pairs of evidence from those seen in Part 1: 1/2, 2/4, 3/4, and 1/3.
d. They respond to the pairs and triples of evidence.]
Practice Case, Part 1
Scott Auto Theft Case. Your Task: You have been asked to help the county attorney assess evidence gathered by police in an auto theft case. The county attorney would like you to evaluate the evidence and state how you believe the evidence implicates the seven suspects. The county attorney may or may not have more evidence, but at this time the county attorney is only interested in examining the effects of the following pieces of evidence. The county attorney asks that the evaluation be done for the pieces of evidence individually, as well as collectively, because the county attorney is unsure which suspect will be charged and which evidence will be used in court. Your analysis will be used to guide the on-going police investigation and to help the county attorney in the pre-trial preparation of a case. At this time the police are sure of a couple of things: 1) the thief acted alone, and 2) the list of suspects is complete.
The Crime: At 7:45 pm on the night of July 12th, Julie Scott parked her car at the 6th street ramp downtown. She returned to the ramp at 10:00 pm and found her car missing. The police were notified and the car was found down by the river at 11:35 pm. The car had been stripped and a number of Ms. Scott’s belongings were missing.
[Subjects then evaluated the following four pieces of evidence:]
Evidence 1. The alibis of the suspects were checked. Some suspects claim to have been in public places for the entire time that the theft could have occurred. Others at those public places recall seeing the suspects at approximately the supposed time of the theft. The other suspects claim to have been home alone at their respective homes, without anyone able to verify this information.
[Suspect information is given with target set ACDFG.]
Evidence 2. Some of Ms. Scott’s belongings were discovered in some of the suspects’ homes a few days after the theft. The suspects claim that they did not know the goods were stolen because they bought the goods from someone on the street. The search of the suspects’ homes revealed:
[Suspect information is given with target set BE.]
Evidence 3. The driver’s side seat in the car was pushed toward the back of the car. Ms. Scott usually drives with the seat very near the steering wheel, hence police believe that whoever drove the car to the river would need to be at least 6 feet tall. The height of the suspects:
[Suspect information is given with target set B.]
Evidence 4. The criminal history of the suspects was checked and some of the suspects were found to have a previous conviction for auto theft. The other suspects had no criminal histories.
[Suspect information is given with target set CE.]
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