Gender stereotypes and leadership emergence

Gender stereotypes present significant challenges to women’s progression into leadership roles (Brescoll, Reference Brescoll2016). This consensus emerges from both empirical research within social and organisational psychology and the lived experiences of women holding leadership positions (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell & Ristikari, Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011). For example, a survey of female executives in Fortune 1000 corporations revealed that a majority perceive stereotypes about women’s roles and abilities as a substantial impediment to reaching the apex of their careers (Wellington, Kropf & Gerkovich, Reference Wellington, Kropf and Gerkovich2003). Role congruity theory provides the dominant explanation for gendered experiences of leadership emergence.

Role congruity theory

Role congruity theory (Eagly & Karau, Reference Eagly and Karau2002) explains how gender stereotypes affect leadership emergence by highlighting the mismatch between societal expectations of women and the attributes linked to leadership roles. In many cultures, people associate women with communal traits like warmth and co-operation, while they link leadership positions with agentic traits such as assertiveness and dominance. This mismatch creates barriers for women aspiring to leadership roles, as they are perceived as less suitable due to conflicting expectations (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016).

Badura, Grijalva, Newman, Yan and Jeon (Reference Badura, Grijalva, Newman, Yan and Jeon2018) find that agentic traits significantly influence leader emergence through active participation in group discussions. Women, often associated with communal traits, may participate less in settings that value agentic behaviour, affecting their visibility as potential leaders. Heilman, Caleo and Manzi (Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024) examined how descriptive and prescriptive stereotypes lead to bias in performance evaluations. Women displaying agentic behaviours may face penalties for violating gender norms, which further hinders their leadership prospects. Brescoll (Reference Brescoll2016) observed that female leaders expressing emotions like anger are perceived negatively, reducing their influence compared to male leaders. This reaction stems from stereotypes that expect women to be more emotional yet penalise them when they display certain emotions. Koenig et al. (Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011) conducted a meta-analysis revealing that leadership is culturally associated with masculine traits. This perception reinforces the idea that men are more suited for leadership roles, creating additional hurdles for women.

Fitzsimmons and Callan (Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016) discuss how women face limitations in accessing roles that build leadership capital due to gendered organisational practices. These limitations hinder their ability to gain experiences that are valued in leadership selection processes. Hoyt and Murphy (Reference Hoyt and Murphy2016) explored stereotype threat, where women fear being judged based on negative stereotypes, affecting their performance and leadership aspirations. Such threats lead to psychological barriers that discourage women from pursuing leadership roles. Ellemers (Reference Ellemers2018) highlighted that gender stereotypes not only influence others’ perceptions but also affect women’s self-perception, reinforcing behaviours that align with stereotypes. Guillén, Mayo and Karelaia (Reference Guillén, Mayo and Karelaia2018) found that self-confidence alone is insufficient for women to gain influence in male-dominated professions. Women must also exhibit prosocial behaviour to be perceived as effective leaders. This requirement adds an extra layer of expectations not typically placed on men.

Role congruity theory thereby explains how gender stereotypes create significant obstacles for women in leadership emergence. The mismatch between societal expectations of femininity and the attributes associated with leadership roles leads to bias and prejudice. Addressing these challenges requires organisational changes that recognise and mitigate the impact of gender stereotypes on leadership selection and evaluation.

Role seniority

Gender stereotypes significantly influence the attainment of senior leadership roles. As individuals ascend to higher positions, societal expectations and biases become more pronounced. Eagly and Heilman (Reference Eagly and Heilman2016) observe that stereotypes portraying women as less agentic and more emotional undermine their potential in male-dominated environments. These stereotypes persist despite shifts in societal norms, making it difficult for women to accumulate the necessary career capital for senior roles. Fitzsimmons and Callan (Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016) noted that women face limitations in accessing experiences that build leadership capital due to gendered organisational practices. The ‘glass cliff’ phenomenon further illustrates how role seniority intersects with gender stereotypes. Ryan et al. (Reference Ryan, Haslam, Morgenroth, Rink, Stoker and Peters2016) reviewed research showing that women are more likely to be appointed to precarious leadership positions during times of crisis. This trend reflects stereotypical beliefs that women are suited for challenging, high-risk situations, which often lack support and stability. Such appointments can negatively impact women’s career trajectories, as failures in these roles reinforce biases about women’s suitability for senior leadership (Ryan et al., Reference Ryan, Haslam, Morgenroth, Rink, Stoker and Peters2016).

Stereotypes not only affect perceptions from others but also influence women’s self-perception in pursuing senior roles. Hoyt and Murphy (Reference Hoyt and Murphy2016) discussed stereotype threat, where women fear being judged based on negative stereotypes, which creates psychological barriers to leadership aspirations. This threat intensifies in the context of senior positions, where masculine traits are highly valued. Ellemers (Reference Ellemers2018) highlighted that these stereotypes reinforce behaviours aligning with societal expectations, further limiting women’s progression into senior leadership. Heilman et al. (Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024) examined how descriptive and prescriptive stereotypes lead to bias in performance evaluations, particularly in male-dominated fields valuing agentic traits. Women displaying assertiveness may face penalties for violating gender norms, hindering their advancement into senior roles. Koenig et al. (Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011) found that leadership is culturally associated with masculine traits, especially in high-status positions. This association creates additional hurdles for women aiming for senior leadership, as they are perceived as less fitting for these roles.

Organisational practices also play a role in perpetuating gender disparities in senior positions. Adams (Reference Adams2016) critiques the ‘business case’ for gender diversity on boards, noting that the presence of female directors does not uniformly lead to improved financial performance. The selection processes for board positions may involve biases that favour men, further limiting women’s access to senior roles. Gould, Kulik and Sardeshmukh (Reference Gould, Kulik and Sardeshmukh2018) suggest that increasing female representation on boards can have a ‘trickle-down effect’ on executive gender diversity, although external diversity recommendations may not accelerate this effect. Work–life balance issues disproportionately affect women’s aspirations for senior leadership. Fritz and Van Knippenberg (Reference Fritz and Van Knippenberg2018) found that work–life initiatives positively impact women’s leadership aspirations more than men’s. Yet, in male-dominated contexts, these initiatives may not sufficiently mitigate the barriers women face in advancing to senior roles (Kalysh, Kulik & Perera, Reference Kalysh, Kulik and Perera2016). Organisational cultures that undervalue flexible practices contribute to the underrepresentation of women in senior positions.

Stereotypes also intersect with race in affecting women’s progression to senior leadership. Rosette, Koval, Ma and Livingston (Reference Rosette, Koval, Ma and Livingston2016) explored how racial stereotypes influence the challenges women face in leadership contexts. For instance, Black women may face fewer penalties for assertive behaviour but encounter biases regarding competence, affecting their advancement to senior roles. Intersectional approaches are essential in understanding the complex ways stereotypes hinder women’s attainment of senior leadership positions. Role seniority is therefore closely associated with gender stereotypes in leadership. As individuals move into higher positions, the impact of societal expectations and biases intensifies, creating significant obstacles for women. Addressing these challenges requires organisational changes that recognise and mitigate the influence of gender stereotypes on the selection and evaluation processes for senior roles.

Observer gender

Gender stereotypes in leadership are influenced by the gender of the observer, affecting perceptions and evaluations of leadership qualities. Hentschel, Heilman and Peus (Reference Hentschel, Heilman and Peus2019) found that male and female observers rate agency and communality differently in themselves and others. Men view women as less agentic and more communal, while women perceive agency among women as more nuanced. This difference suggests that observer gender plays a role in reinforcing or challenging traditional gender stereotypes in leadership contexts. Koenig et al. (Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011) conducted a meta-analysis revealing that leadership is culturally associated with masculine traits like assertiveness and dominance. This association is stronger among male observers and in male-dominated sectors. Female observers showed a diminishing perception of leadership as masculine over time. This shift indicates that female observers may recognise communal and androgynous qualities in leaders, influencing evaluations of female leadership.

Observer gender affects evaluations of emotional expressions in leaders. Brescoll (Reference Brescoll2016) examine how female leaders expressing emotions like anger are perceived negatively, especially by male observers who hold stereotypes about women being more emotional. This perception reduces the influence of female leaders compared to male leaders displaying similar emotions. The observer’s gender influences these evaluations, reinforcing biases that disadvantage women in leadership roles when they exhibit behaviours associated with authority. Heilman et al. (Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024) discuss how descriptive and prescriptive stereotypes lead to bias in performance evaluations, particularly in male-dominated fields. Male observers may penalise women for displaying agentic behaviours like assertiveness, which are expected and accepted in men but viewed negatively in women. This bias affects women’s career advancement and leadership opportunities. Female observers may also internalise these stereotypes, impacting their evaluations of other women in leadership positions.

Guillén et al. (Reference Guillén, Mayo and Karelaia2018) found that self-confidence enhances influence at work for both men and women, but observer gender moderates this effect. Men gain influence when appearing self-confident, as male observers align confidence with leadership potential. Women must also demonstrate prosocial behaviour to achieve similar influence, reflecting observers’ expectations regarding appropriate female behaviour. This disparity highlights how observer gender shapes the criteria used to evaluate leadership potential in women. Lemoine, Aggarwal and Steed (Reference Lemoine, Aggarwal and Steed2016) explored leadership emergence in group settings, finding that women are more likely to emerge as leaders in groups high in extraversion and predominantly male. This suggests that male observers in such groups may recognise and accept women’s leadership when group dynamics encourage open communication. Observer gender influences the acceptance of female leaders, depending on social context and group characteristics.

Rosette et al. (Reference Rosette, Koval, Ma and Livingston2016) examined how racial and gender stereotypes intersect in leadership perceptions. Observer gender can influence the application of stereotypes, with male observers enforcing stricter penalties for women who violate expected behaviours. Female observers may offer more nuanced evaluations, considering both competence and dominance. This dynamic underscores the role of observer gender in perpetuating or challenging stereotypes that affect women’s leadership experiences. Observer gender thus plays a significant role in how gender stereotypes influence leadership perceptions and evaluations. Male and female observers differ in their perceptions of agency, communality, and appropriate leadership behaviours. These differences impact the opportunities and challenges women face in leadership roles. Addressing the influence of observer gender requires organisations to implement training and policies that raise awareness of unconscious biases, promoting equitable evaluations of leadership potential regardless of gender.

Changes over time

Gender stereotypes in leadership have evolved significantly over time, reflecting changes in societal norms and increased female participation in leadership roles. Historically, leadership has been culturally associated with masculine traits such as assertiveness and dominance. Koenig et al. (Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011) conducted a meta-analysis demonstrating that leadership roles were predominantly viewed as masculine across various paradigms. This association was particularly strong in high-status roles and male-dominated sectors, reinforcing the perception that men are more suited for leadership positions. As more women have entered leadership roles, perceptions have begun to shift. Koenig et al. (Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011) found that the perceived masculinity of leadership diminished over time, especially among female participants and in educational leadership contexts. This change suggests that increased visibility of female leaders can alter stereotypes, allowing for the inclusion of more androgynous or communal qualities in leadership perceptions. Eagly and Heilman (Reference Eagly and Heilman2016) noted that despite these shifts, stereotypes portraying women as less agentic and more emotional continue to undermine their leadership potential, particularly in male-dominated environments.

The ‘glass cliff’ phenomenon reflects how gender stereotypes in leadership have changed. Ryan et al. (Reference Ryan, Haslam, Morgenroth, Rink, Stoker and Peters2016) reviewed research showing that women are more likely to be appointed to precarious leadership positions during times of crisis. This trend indicates a shift in stereotypes, associating women with communal qualities deemed suitable for handling challenging situations. While this provides leadership opportunities, it often places women in roles with heightened risk and limited support, potentially reinforcing negative stereotypes if they fail to improve organisational performance (Ryan et al., Reference Ryan, Haslam, Morgenroth, Rink, Stoker and Peters2016). Feminist theories have influenced the evolution of leadership research. Kark and Buengeler (Reference Kark and Buengeler2024) explored how different waves of feminist thought have shaped understandings of gender and leadership. Early theories emphasised male-centric qualities, but later waves incorporated communal and relational styles associated with femininity. This progression highlights a growing recognition of diverse leadership styles and challenges traditional gendered perceptions.

Intersectionality has become increasingly important in understanding gender stereotypes in leadership. Rosette et al. (Reference Rosette, Koval, Ma and Livingston2016) examined how race and gender intersect to influence perceptions of female leaders. They found that stereotypes are not uniformly applied to all women, and race significantly moderates how agency is perceived. This insight underscores the complexity of stereotypes and the need to consider multiple identities in leadership evaluations. Recent studies have revealed more nuanced understandings of gender stereotypes. Hentschel et al. (Reference Hentschel, Heilman and Peus2019) investigated the dimensions of agency and communality, finding that stereotypes are complex and can reinforce self-limiting behaviours among women. They suggest that focusing on nuanced aspects of these traits can aid in designing interventions to address workplace gender biases. This approach reflects a shift from broad generalisations to more detailed analyses of how stereotypes function.

Despite changes over time, persistent challenges remain. Eagly and Heilman (Reference Eagly and Heilman2016) argued that stereotypes of women as less agentic are difficult to eliminate due to ongoing societal role divisions. Heilman et al. (Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024) discussed how descriptive and prescriptive stereotypes continue to lead to bias in performance evaluations, particularly in male-dominated fields. These enduring stereotypes hinder women’s career advancement and highlight the need for ongoing efforts to address gender bias in leadership. Gender stereotypes in leadership have clearly changed over time, moving from rigid associations with masculine traits to more nuanced and inclusive perceptions. Increased female participation in leadership roles and the influence of feminist theories have contributed to this evolution. However, persistent stereotypes and biases continue to pose challenges. Understanding the complex and changing nature of these stereotypes is essential for developing strategies to promote gender equity in leadership positions.

Extant discourse on gender stereotypes and leadership emergence thereby includes various contextual factors – such as role seniority, observer gender, and changes over time, among others – and yet no overarching theoretical framework has yet been applied to bring these disparate themes together into a logical and coherent structure. We therefore propose that EST might serve as a helpful perspective to organise the discourse and analyse the lived experiences of gender-based stereotyping in leadership emergence.

Ecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner (Reference Bronfenbrenner1979) introduced EST to elucidate the impact of contextual factors on human development. The theory progressed through three primary phases: (a) scrutinizing direct context effects on development; (b) concentrating on context–individual interactions; and (c) comprehending proximal processes, which denote interactions among contextual systems (Tudge, Mokrova, Hatfield & Karnik, Reference Tudge, Mokrova, Hatfield and Karnik2009). In the second phase of EST, positive development emerges from personal characteristics and environmental influences (Bronfenbrenner, Reference Bronfenbrenner and Vasta1989). For instance, individuals possessing desirable traits, assets, and capabilities tend to attain greater success. When these individuals operate within a supportive and encouraging context, they are more likely to succeed compared to those facing a deficient and obstructive environment.

EST positions individuals within five nested systems: (1) the microsystem, encompassing institutions or groups with which individuals have direct and regular contact; (2) the mesosystem, constituted by connections between distinct microsystems; (3) the exosystem, comprising broader social structures with which the focal individual has no direct interaction; (4) the macrosystem, the highest contextual level encompassing the economy, government, and culture; and (5) the chronosystem, addressing the changing pattern of effects over time (Neal & Neal, Reference Neal and Neal2013). A fundamental tenet of EST underscores that understanding development requires a broader context rather than solely focusing on the individual. EST posits that development emerges from the interplay between individuals and their environment, as individuals both influence and are influenced by their surroundings (Rosa & Tudge, Reference Rosa and Tudge2013).

EST’s applicability extends across diverse research domains, including family studies (Liu, Reference Liu2015), disaster recovery (Boon, Cottrell, King, Stevenson & Millar, Reference Boon, Cottrell, King, Stevenson and Millar2012), economic development (Pocock, Williams & Skinner, Reference Pocock, Williams and Skinner2012), and entrepreneurship (Lux, Macau & Brown, Reference Lux, Macau and Brown2020). Beyond human development, EST can be transposed to analogous entities, such as individual female leaders’ professional development and performance.

Empowering systems for women leaders

Bronfenbrenner’s (Reference Bronfenbrenner1979) EST offers a valuable framework for understanding and addressing the gender disparity in leadership within the global healthcare industry, particularly in healthcare and community health contexts. Applying EST to empower women leaders in these fields involves examining the various systems and their interconnectedness. Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh (Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023) argue for a holistic approach that considers interactions at various system levels, aligning with EST’s emphasis on nested systems influencing individual development.

At the microsystem level, which includes institutions and groups with which individuals have direct and regular contact, such as hospitals, clinics, and community health organisations, empowering women leaders involves addressing gender bias and promoting equal opportunities (Fitzsimmons & Callan, Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016; Heilman et al., Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024). Addressing these biases can foster mentorship programmes and support women in accumulating the necessary career capital to excel in leadership roles (Fitzsimmons & Callan, Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016).

The mesosystem represents the connections between distinct microsystems. Empowering women leaders involves strengthening networks and partnerships between healthcare facilities and community health programmes (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024). By fostering collaborative relationships and communal leadership styles, organisations can support women’s leadership development and the exchange of best practices (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024; Lyness & Grotto, Reference Lyness and Grotto2018).

At the exosystem level, broader social structures like healthcare policies, funding mechanisms, and regulatory frameworks indirectly impact individuals. Advocating for policies that promote gender equity, fair compensation, and work–life balance is essential to empower women leaders in healthcare (Kalysh et al., Reference Kalysh, Kulik and Perera2016; Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018). Implementing inclusive policies and work–life initiatives can create a supportive exosystem that enables women to excel in leadership roles (Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018). Additionally, demand-side strategies like quotas with enforcement can increase female representation in leadership positions (Sojo, Wood, Wood & Wheeler, Reference Sojo, Wood, Wood and Wheeler2016).

At the macrosystem level, broader societal factors such as cultural norms, the economy, and government policies influence healthcare. Empowering women leaders requires challenging deeply ingrained cultural norms and gender stereotypes within the industry (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Ellemers, Reference Ellemers2018). Addressing stereotypes that associate leadership with masculine traits can promote diversity and inclusivity, creating an environment that recognises and values women’s leadership contributions (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Koenig et al., Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011).

The chronosystem addresses how the pattern of effects changes over time. Recognising the evolving nature of gender dynamics in leadership is crucial for empowering women leaders in healthcare (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024; Koenig et al., Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011). As perceptions of leadership become less associated with masculine traits over time, strategies must adapt to address shifting challenges and opportunities (Koenig et al., Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011). Long-term initiatives should consider these changes to effectively support women in leadership roles.

A core tenet of EST is that development cannot be fully understood by examining the individual alone but must be framed within the wider context in which they operate (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). This principle applies to empowering women leaders in healthcare and community health, as gender disparities cannot be addressed solely by focusing on individual women; the entire ecological system must be considered (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023; Zaccaro, Green, Dubrow & Kolze, Reference Zaccaro, Green, Dubrow and Kolze2018). Applying EST to empower women leaders in healthcare aligns with its broader use in various research fields, including entrepreneurship, where it helps explain how individuals interact with their business environment (Fitzsimmons & Callan, Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016). Similarly, EST can be applied to understand how women leaders in healthcare are influenced by the larger systems and structures that surround them (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023).

EST provides a comprehensive framework for addressing the gender disparity in leadership within the healthcare industry (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). By considering the interplay between women leaders and their environments at multiple levels, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem, we can develop strategies and initiatives that empower women to reach their fullest potential in healthcare and community health contexts (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). This approach goes beyond individual-focused efforts and can create a more inclusive and equitable landscape for women leaders (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024).

Our investigation was thus guided by the following research question: how can the EST framework help us to better understand women leadership emergence and make sense of women leaders’ lived experiences? We wanted to investigate the broader context within which women become leaders in healthcare settings, and how aspects of that context can both enable, and inhibit, their leadership emergence. The following sections outline our research methods, report the findings, and discuss the theoretical and practical implications.

Research design

We used a social constructivist framework to explore our research questions (Berger & Luckmann, Reference Berger, Luckmann, Longhofer and Winchester2023), drawing on thematic analysis of qualitative interviews to gain insights into the lived experiences of individuals (Braun & Clarke, Reference Braun and Clarke2006). In line with other scholars investigating gender issues in leadership (e.g., Byrne & Chadwick, Reference Byrne and Chadwick2024), we chose our participants deliberately, focusing on those who could provide deep internal perspectives and first-hand experiences relevant to our study (Patton, Reference Patton2014). Our research focused on seasoned female leaders in healthcare settings, who are well-placed to shed light about their paths to leadership and their encounters with gender-related stereotypes.

Sample

Our research sample included 17 experienced female leaders from healthcare organisations across Australia. To recruit our participants, we first contacted experienced female executives via email to outline our research aims and request interviews, which led to several agreeing to participate. We then used snowball sampling by inviting our interviewees to recommend other potential participants in similar leadership positions within the healthcare sector, who might be willing to engage with the research.

Participants in the final sample ranged in age from 24 to 64 and were all based in Australia. To ensure their anonymity, we assigned numbers to participants and omitted any identifiable details in the data collection and transcription. Participants held leadership roles with titles such as Executive Director, Board of Directors Chair, Head of Nursing, Chief Education Officer, Specialist Surgeon, and Ambassador (organisation-specific details omitted to ensure participants’ anonymity).

Data collection

We conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews with the participants. All the interviews were conducted by one author to ensure a consistency in the approach. The authorship team met to discuss emerging themes and other issues throughout the research process. We obtained permission from participants to audio-record and then transcribe the interviews, and all participants agreed. The interviews ranged from 28 to 116 mins and the average interview length was 56 mins.

The interview guide included questions around major themes such as how gender related perceptions affected their leadership emergence, the barriers, limitations, and challenges to their leadership career development, as well as the enablers, supporters, and champions with whom they interacted along the way. The interview guide is available from the corresponding author upon request. All data were subsequently imported into NVivo, a software programme for qualitative analysis.

Data analysis

In the initial phase of analysis, one author identified concepts and generated codes directly from the participant transcripts (Corbin & Strauss, Reference Corbin and Strauss2015). One team member was the sole coder, and worked systematically through the transcripts, noting down observations, and applied open coding to the data. They started by ‘open coding’ three transcripts, focusing on extracting initial codes and potential themes. This process was then repeated throughout the analysis to continually refined and narrowed down the codes, ensuring consistency and accuracy in interpreting the data.

Next, the author team sought out similarities and differences among our first-order codes to develop second-order themes. Specifically, we identified themes that most related to gender-based beliefs and perceptions in relation to leadership emergence, and the reasoning that our participants used to explain these narratives, narrowing down our original codes to five overarching themes. We achieved theoretical saturation after 12 interviews at which point the codes and themes that emerged from additional interviews did not generate any new information (Glaser & Strauss, Reference Glaser and Strauss1967). To confirm this saturation and to add further contextual nuance to our data, we conducted five more interviews with women leaders. We then applied EST as a way to organise our discussion and provide plausible explanations for our findings in relation to our research questions.

We followed the criteria set out by Guba (Reference Guba1981) to ensure the trustworthiness of our findings. For example, by documenting the data collection and analysis processes, triangulating perspectives among a team of expert researchers, including numerous direct quotations and data-rich explanations, and maintaining researchers’ impartiality by reviewing the extracted codes and themes as a team to reach consensus. We are therefore confident that our analysis is credible, transferrable, dependable, and confirmable (Shenton, Reference Shenton2004).

Men help women to step up

Traditional gender leadership stereotypes position men as natural leaders and gatekeepers of the status quo (Koenig et al., Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011). Our research findings present a compelling challenge to these stereotypes. They reveal that female leaders often credit men as pivotal in their advancement into leadership roles and in championing their career progression within organisations. This insight diverges from the conventional narrative, highlighting that men can be allies and advocates for women’s leadership. The data collected from female leader respondents illuminate a nuanced dynamic where male colleagues not only recognise the potential in their female counterparts but also take active steps to support their ascent into leadership positions. Such support aligns with calls for multi-level approaches to gender equality that involve both men and women (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). Men, in these instances, serve as mentors, sponsors, and advocates, providing the necessary support and opportunities for women to navigate the complexities of career advancement in environments traditionally dominated by male leadership.

Many participants reflected on senior male leaders specifically selecting them for leadership career development. For example, P2 shared that ‘this one manager, who was a male, really supported me. [He’d] been around for a while and he really inspired me’. P8 was first invited to cover a senior male leader while he was on leave, and then he asked ‘if you want to step into the position?’. P7 was encouraged to consider further career opportunities by a male mentor who explained that the ‘training and skills that you’ve gained, they are transferable’ and can take you ‘everywhere you want’. P1 shared that she ‘always felt that I was mentored and told to go for promotion’ by her male leaders. This support ranges from endorsing women’s ideas in high-stakes meetings to advocating for their promotions and inclusion in pivotal projects. Such actions by men directly contribute to breaking down the barriers that women face in achieving leadership positions, addressing structural factors that hinder women’s advancement (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016). They also signify a shift in organisational cultures towards more inclusive practices that recognise talent and leadership potential beyond gender stereotypes (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024).

The implications of these findings are significant. They suggest that overcoming gender biases in leadership is not solely the responsibility of women or the implementation of organisational policies aimed at promoting diversity and inclusion (Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018). Instead, they highlight the critical role that male leaders play in actively challenging and changing the gender dynamics within leadership structures. Engaging men as allies can help address the complex factors influencing gender diversity in leadership (Lyness & Grotto, Reference Lyness and Grotto2018). By demonstrating that men can and do act as essential allies in promoting women’s leadership, our research calls for a revaluation of strategies aimed at achieving gender equality in leadership. It underscores the importance of fostering a culture of mentorship and support that transcends gender lines and actively involves men in the process of promoting diversity and inclusion (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). Such collaborative efforts align with the shift towards inclusive leadership approaches advocated by later waves of feminist theory (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024).

Our research challenges the traditional view of gender leadership stereotypes by showcasing the positive role men play in supporting women’s leadership journeys. This finding urges a broader perspective on gender equality initiatives, advocating for collaborative efforts that leverage the influence of both men and women to dismantle barriers to leadership diversity (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). It invites organisations to consider how they can cultivate an environment where such supportive dynamics flourish, contributing to the advancement of women into leadership roles and the overall enhancement of organisational performance and innovation (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016).

Women keep women down

Our research findings introduce a critical perspective that challenges traditional gender leadership stereotypes in the workplace, particularly the notion that barriers to women’s advancement are predominantly erected by men. Contrary to this widely held belief, our data from female leader respondents indicate that it is often other women who impede their career progress into leadership roles and exhibit scepticism towards ambitious women within organisations.

Many participants shared experiences of other women bullying them, discouraging their career progress, and actively disrupting their leadership emergence. For example, P4 confessed that she felt that she and other women ‘had to really fight for their space and voice’, which meant that they were ‘often quite nasty to each other’. P5 reflected that ‘the last two female bosses I’ve had have been terrible’ and disclosed the out-group ostracism perpetrated by one female supervisor who ‘was very insecure and so developed a very close group around that person, and all those people were thriving, but anybody who sat outside of that space didn’t get the opportunities’. P4 explained that her ‘manager was a woman, and it was the first time I felt bullied in the workplace and threatened; it was a very toxic environment’. P2 confided that her female colleagues ‘told me ever since I’ve gotten to the role that you can’t stay in that role for more than three years, […] they said you’ll just get burnt out’. P5 ‘found that females have been the hardest people to empower other females’ and shared experiences in being nominated for a regional award, noting that ‘it wasn’t my boss’s idea to put me forward’, and ‘by the time I went to go for a national award, she shut it down’. P4 reflected on the following intentional instance of sabotage and ridicule by her female superior:

This revelation underscores a complex dynamic where female leaders encounter resistance not from the opposite gender but from within their own. Women reported instances where their female colleagues and superiors were less supportive of their career aspirations, sometimes even obstructing their paths to leadership positions. This phenomenon, known as the ‘queen bee syndrome’, involves senior women in leadership roles who do not support other women’s advancement within the organisation (Derks, Van Laar & Ellemers, Reference Derks, Van Laar and Ellemers2016; Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016). The findings shed light on an intricate layer of workplace dynamics where gender stereotypes are perpetuated not only by societal norms but also through interactions among women. This internalised gender bias among women highlights a significant challenge in the quest for gender equality in leadership (Derks et al., Reference Derks, Van Laar and Ellemers2016). It points to the need for a deeper understanding of the factors that contribute to such attitudes and behaviours among women in the workplace.

Addressing this issue requires organisations to foster a culture of mutual support and solidarity among women, encouraging mentorship and collaboration rather than competition (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024; Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018). Initiatives that promote women’s networks and support groups within organisations can play a crucial role in building a more inclusive environment where women feel empowered to pursue leadership roles without facing opposition from their peers (Fritz & Van Knippenberg, Reference Fritz and Van Knippenberg2018; Ladge, Humberd & Eddleston, Reference Ladge, Humberd and Eddleston2018). Leadership development programmes need to be mindful of these dynamics, ensuring that they equip women with the skills to navigate and dismantle these internal barriers (Fitzsimmons & Callan, Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016; Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018). Such programmes should focus on building confidence, negotiation skills, and strategies for effective mentorship and support among women (Guillén et al., Reference Guillén, Mayo and Karelaia2018; Hentschel et al., Reference Hentschel, Heilman and Peus2019).

Our research thereby calls for a reconceptualisation of the narratives surrounding gender and leadership in the workplace. It highlights the importance of addressing the nuanced challenges that women face from within their gender group in addition to combating systemic biases (Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023; Rosette et al., Reference Rosette, Koval, Ma and Livingston2016). By acknowledging and tackling these internal barriers, organisations can make significant strides towards achieving true gender equality in leadership, fostering an environment where all employees, regardless of gender, have the opportunity to thrive and advance (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018).

Vulnerability as a strength

Our research directly confronts traditional gender leadership stereotypes in the workplace, particularly the perception that leadership necessitates unwavering confidence without any display of vulnerability. Traditional stereotypes often associate effective leadership with masculine traits such as assertiveness, decisiveness, and dominance (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Koenig et al., Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011). These stereotypes suggest that any deviation, such as showing vulnerability, may undermine a leader’s effectiveness, especially for women who are already battling gender biases in leadership roles (Heilman et al., Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024; Hentschel et al., Reference Hentschel, Heilman and Peus2019). Through in-depth interviews with female leaders across the healthcare sector, we uncovered a more nuanced reality: revealing vulnerability often emerges as a strength, rather than a weakness, in the journey to leadership roles. This finding challenges the conventional wisdom that leaders must mask vulnerabilities to maintain authority and respect (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024).

Many participants reflected on being open with their own limitations and focusing on more supportive behaviour as advantages for leadership emergence and success. For example, P5 explained that ‘I think when leaders actually are very comfortable with themselves and comfortable with their positions and comfortable with themselves – they will grow people because we’re not in an egoic fight to try and see who’s better because it’s ultimately not what it’s about’. P4 likewise highlighted how important it is ‘if you’re a leader to be self-aware and to recognize your areas or your limitations.’ P3 readily admits that as women leaders ‘we recognize that we’re not perfect’, and P2 explains ‘that’s what attracts people to me as being a leader is that I’ve got that caring nature’. P1 echoed the sentiment when asked about what enabled her success, saying that ‘you’ve got to be very nurturing and understanding and supportive of staff’. P6 noted perceptual differences in leadership behaviour because ‘the structures and the systems don’t enable or support women to communicate their confidence, and when there’s confidence communicated, it’s perceived as cockiness or assertiveness’.

These reflections align with the shift towards recognising the value of communal and relational leadership styles, which are often associated with feminine qualities (Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci & Burke, Reference Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci and Burke2017; Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024). Women leaders embracing vulnerability can enhance their authenticity and foster trust among team members, facilitating more inclusive and supportive work environments (Fritz & Van Knippenberg, Reference Fritz and Van Knippenberg2018; Ladge et al., Reference Ladge, Humberd and Eddleston2018). The feedback from our female leader respondents indicates that vulnerability, when shared appropriately, allows teams to see their leaders as more relatable and human. This connection fosters a culture of openness and encourages others to share their thoughts and concerns without fear of retribution. Significantly, the reception of vulnerability versus confidence does not follow the expected patterns dictated by gender stereotypes (Guillén et al., Reference Guillén, Mayo and Karelaia2018). Instead, respondents report that showing vulnerability often leads to positive outcomes, including improved team dynamics, enhanced problem-solving capabilities, and increased overall performance (Heilman et al., Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024; Hentschel et al., Reference Hentschel, Heilman and Peus2019).

Our findings suggest a paradigm shift in the understanding of leadership qualities, challenging the binary association of leadership traits with gender (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Koenig et al., Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011). The positive reception of vulnerability as a leadership trait, as reported by female leaders, underscores the need for a broader revaluation of what effective leadership looks like (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024). This shift has implications for leadership development programmes, which may need to incorporate training on emotional intelligence and vulnerability as critical leadership skills (Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018; Zaccaro et al., Reference Zaccaro, Green, Dubrow and Kolze2018). Our study provides empirical evidence that challenges the entrenched stereotypes of gender and leadership in the workplace. By highlighting the strength of vulnerability in leadership, particularly among female leaders, we call for a redefinition of leadership traits that values authenticity and emotional intelligence alongside traditional metrics of confidence and decisiveness (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024; Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). This redefinition not only challenges gender stereotypes but also opens the door for more inclusive and effective leadership practices (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018).

Targeting ambitious women

Our research sheds light on a significant issue that challenges traditional gender leadership stereotypes in the workplace: the ostracisation of women due to their leadership ambition. Through interviews with female leaders across different industries, we discovered that these ambitious women often face workplace incivility and bullying as a direct consequence of their aspirations to leadership roles. This finding disrupts the conventional narrative that the workplace is a meritocratic environment where leadership qualities and ambitions are universally welcomed and supported (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Fitzsimmons & Callan, Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016).

Many participants felt that they were specifically targeted and ostracised for their leadership career ambition. For example, P2 reflected on another female executive manager, noting that ‘people judge her in regards to being so powerful’. Both P4 and P5 felt that other females were threatened by their ambition: P4 stated, ‘when I reflect back now, I think she was threatened by me’, and P5 shared, ‘something about me made her feel quite unsafe’. Such experiences resonate with the ‘queen bee phenomenon’, where senior women in male-dominated environments may distance themselves from other women due to social identity threats (Derks et al., Reference Derks, Van Laar and Ellemers2016; Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016). When confronted with bullying, colleagues would agree that the perpetrators’ conduct was inappropriate, but none would intervene or support the victims. For example, P4 was told that ‘you’re the highest performing service director we’ve got, and I can’t believe she did that’, but then reflected that still ‘nobody stuck up for me’. Likewise, P5 was told that ‘whilst it’s unprofessional, yeah, we can’t help you’. P6 shared the following realisation while discussing the challenges of being an ambitious woman:

The feedback from our female leader respondents indicates a troubling trend where women expressing leadership ambition experience exclusion and hostility from co-workers. This reaction starkly contrasts with the expectations placed upon men, who are typically encouraged and praised for similar ambitions (Heilman et al., Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024; Koenig et al., Reference Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell and Ristikari2011). Such differential treatment underscores the persistence of gender biases in the workplace, suggesting that ambitious women are penalised for deviating from traditional gender roles that prescribe passivity and compliance rather than assertiveness and ambition (Heilman et al., Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024; Hentschel et al., Reference Hentschel, Heilman and Peus2019). Our study highlights the impact of this ostracisation on women’s career progression and well-being. The targeted incivility and bullying not only create a hostile work environment but also pose significant barriers to women’s advancement into leadership positions (Hoyt & Murphy, Reference Hoyt and Murphy2016; Vial, Napier & Brescoll, Reference Vial, Napier and Brescoll2016). The experience of social penalties for displaying ambition discourages women from pursuing leadership roles, contributing to the gender leadership gap (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018).

The implications of our findings extend to organisational culture and policies. Organisations must acknowledge and address the gendered barriers to leadership that exist within their structures and practices (Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018; Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). Creating a supportive environment for all employees, regardless of gender, to express and pursue leadership ambitions is crucial. This involves implementing policies that actively combat workplace incivility and bullying, promoting diversity and inclusion training, and fostering a culture that values and rewards leadership potential equally in men and women (Fritz & Van Knippenberg, Reference Fritz and Van Knippenberg2018; Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024). Our research contributes to the discourse on gender and leadership by revealing how ambitious women are ostracised in the workplace, challenging the notion that the path to leadership is equally accessible to all. By uncovering the social penalties ambitious women face, we call for a critical examination of workplace cultures and the implementation of strategies to support women in their pursuit of leadership roles (Derks et al., Reference Derks, Van Laar and Ellemers2016; Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016). This approach not only promotes gender equality but also enhances organisational effectiveness by ensuring a diverse and inclusive leadership team (Glass & Cook, Reference Glass and Cook2018; Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018).

Women ‘given’ opportunities

Our research presents a critical examination of the pathways through which female leaders ascend to their roles, challenging traditional gender leadership stereotypes in the workplace. A significant finding from our study reveals that female leaders often report their opportunities for advancement as ‘given’ rather than actively sought or created. This distinction signals a nuanced lack of agency in their approach to leadership emergence and career development, diverging from the conventional narrative that leadership roles are the result of proactive ambition and strategic career planning. This phenomenon aligns with Hentschel et al. (Reference Hentschel, Heilman and Peus2019), who found that women often self-characterise in line with stereotypes, rating themselves lower in assertiveness and leadership than men, which can impact their pursuit of leadership positions.

Many participants’ narratives contained inflection points of leadership emergence where they were ‘lucky’ to be ‘given’ opportunities or invited to consider leadership roles. For example, P2 said that ‘I’ve been very lucky and fortunate in regards to progression’, and ‘I’ve been given a lot of opportunities’, and even though ‘I didn’t see those qualities, but it was good that they took the time to actually say you do have those qualities’. This reflects the findings of Fitzsimmons and Callan (Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016), who argue that women often have limited access to valuable career capital due to societal and organisational biases, which can lead to fewer self-initiated advancement opportunities.

P8 was similarly hesitant, saying that ‘I wasn’t sure if I was ready to make such a commitment […] but then with the encouragement […] I thought, “Okay, probably I should give it a go.”’ P1 reflected in contrast, ‘men would probably more likely do that, they might not need to be told’. This sentiment echoes the research by Guillén et al. (Reference Guillén, Mayo and Karelaia2018), which suggests that self-confidence alone is often insufficient for women to gain influence, and that women may require additional encouragement to pursue leadership roles. P3 recalled only considering a leadership role after being invited ‘to take charge of the operating theatres’ by a senior leader. P6 felt in hindsight that she and other women leaders ‘need to be more proactive’. These experiences highlight the impact of internalised gender stereotypes on women’s self-perception and agency, as discussed by Eagly and Heilman (Reference Eagly and Heilman2016), who notes that stereotypes of women as less agentic persistently undermine female leaders, especially in male-dominated environments.

This insight into the experiences of female leaders prompts a revaluation of the dynamics at play in leadership development and succession planning within organisations. Traditionally, leadership theory and practice have emphasised the importance of individual agency, meritocracy, and the active pursuit of leadership positions as key factors in career advancement (Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024). The narratives shared by our respondents, however, paint a different picture – one where opportunities are presented to them, suggesting an external selection process rather than an internal drive or ambition. This phenomenon raises questions about the underlying mechanisms that contribute to the emergence of female leadership within organisations. It suggests that female leaders may be navigating a complex landscape where their advancement is less about seizing opportunities and more about being recognised or chosen for their potential. This mode of career development contradicts the dominant discourse on leadership, which typically valorises self-made success stories and the assertive claiming of opportunities (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Fitzsimmons & Callan, Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016).

The implications of these findings extend beyond individual career trajectories. They challenge organisational practices and cultural norms that may inadvertently perpetuate gender stereotypes by framing leadership emergence as a passive process for women (Heilman et al., Reference Heilman, Caleo and Manzi2024). Such perceptions could reinforce biases that women are less assertive or inherently less suited to leadership roles, undermining efforts to achieve gender equality in leadership (Gipson et al., Reference Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci and Burke2017; Hentschel et al., Reference Hentschel, Heilman and Peus2019). In response, organisations may need to reconsider how leadership potential is identified and nurtured, ensuring that processes are in place to actively support and encourage all employees, regardless of gender, to pursue leadership roles (Kossek & Buzzanell, Reference Kossek and Buzzanell2018; Lau et al., Reference Lau, Scott, Warren and Bligh2023). This includes creating environments that value diverse leadership journeys and recognising the strength that different pathways to leadership can bring to an organisaation (Fitzsimmons & Callan, Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016; Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024).

Our study contributes to the ongoing discourse on gender and leadership in the workplace by highlighting the complex interplay of agency, opportunity, and gender. By uncovering the subtle ways in which traditional gender stereotypes continue to influence career development and leadership emergence, we advocate for a more nuanced understanding of what effective leadership looks like and how it can be fostered in today’s diverse work environments (Eagly & Heilman, Reference Eagly and Heilman2016; Fitzsimmons & Callan, Reference Fitzsimmons and Callan2016; Kark & Buengeler, Reference Kark and Buengeler2024). The following sections first discuss these five themes against the backdrop of theoretical implications for EST, to then propose a series of practical implications across the various ecosystem levels.