1. Origin of the University of Khartoum

Sudan has a number of universities, the most prominent of which is the University of Khartoum. Resource distribution varies significantly between universities. The University of Khartoum is relatively well-funded, although it lacks numerous resources present in the Global North. The origins of the University of Khartoum date to 1902, when it was founded as Gordon Memorial College in memory of General Charles Gordon of Khartoum, who was killed during the Siege of Khartoum in 1885.Footnote ³ After Britain established dominance in Sudan in 1898 under the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, Lord Kitchener proposed the creation of a college as a memorial to Gordon. Within 6 weeks, £100,000 was raised through public donations to fund the project. The college opened in 1902 with three initial schools—an industrial school, two higher primary schools, and a teacher-training center. By 1905, the first bacteriology laboratory was added with support from Sir Henry Wellcome, a noted pharmaceutical entrepreneur and collector who opened the Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories in Khartoum and funded excavations at Jebel Moya, Sudan.Footnote ⁴ By 1906, the college expanded to include training programs for assistant engineers, land surveyors, and primary school teachers, and also hosted an affiliated military school.

In 1924, Gordon Memorial College was restructured as a fully secondary institution. It introduced programs in Islamic law (Sharia), engineering and surveying, education (teacher training), clerical studies, accounting, and science, while the primary and military schools were discontinued. The Sharia program focused on Islamic jurisprudence and personal status law, and was distinct from the Law School established in 1936, which provided secular legal education based largely on Anglo-Egyptian and common law traditions. That same year saw the establishment of the Kitchener School of Medicine, the first medical school in Sudan. New schools were added over the next two decades: Law (1936), Agriculture and Veterinary Science (1938), Science and Engineering (1939), and Arts (1940). In 1947, the college was affiliated with the University of London, becoming the first overseas institution to join its “special relationship” scheme. The first graduates to receive University of London degrees completed their studies in 1950. The following year, the college was renamed Khartoum University College, incorporating the Kitchener School of Medicine.Footnote ⁵ When Sudan gained independence in 1956, the new national parliament passed a bill granting university status to Khartoum University College. On July 24, 1956, it officially became the University of Khartoum. During the early 1960s, the university expanded academically and internationally.Footnote ⁶

Today, the University of Khartoum comprises multiple faculties, institutes, and research centers. The Sudan Library, a division of the university’s main library system, also serves as the national library of Sudan. Beyond its academic excellence, the University of Khartoum has long been recognized as a center of intellectual freedom and political activism. Over the years, it has played a pivotal role in shaping Sudan’s modern history with several student-led movements and revolutions originating from its campus, contributing to the struggle for democracy and justice in the country.Footnote ⁷

Despite its long academic tradition and institutional capacity, the University of Khartoum has been profoundly affected by the ongoing war. The war has severely disrupted teaching activities due to the closure or inaccessibility of campus facilities, the displacement of staff and students, and the prolonged interruptions of electricity and internet services.

Under these conditions, even formal online teaching platforms became largely unviable. As electricity and internet connectivity were restored intermittently in some areas, academic staff increasingly resorted to WhatsApp as an alternative teaching tool, using it to deliver lectures, share learning materials, communicate with students, and collect coursework. This shift was not driven by pedagogical preference, but rather by necessity, making WhatsApp a critical medium for sustaining higher education during wartime the central concern of this paper.

2. Challenges faced

The use of online tools in Sudan varies from that in the Global North. During the global COVID-19 pandemic, a number of institutions across the world utilized platforms such as Zoom and MS Teams.Footnote ⁸ This enabled them to continue their teaching, even if in an altered form. Universities in Sudan could not afford subscriptions to these platforms. This reflects wider challenges associated with mobile and distance learning in fragile and resource-constrained contexts.Footnote ⁹

Furthermore, a large proportion of the student body lacked direct access to personal laptops, relying on the use of university computers. Acquiring laptops and other technologies has always been difficult in Sudan due to both significant cost (particularly when compared to median earnings) and a series of global sanctions against the country. Combined with a delayed and unequal distribution of vaccines, these challenges align with broader patterns identified in developing countries, where limitations in information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure significantly affect higher education systems.Footnote ¹⁰ University education was negatively impacted during the pandemic. There were other complicating factors. The overthrow of Omar al-Bashir followed a long period of demands for change. Young people, not just university students, were particularly vocal. The years 2019–2023 were marked by dissent, instability, and violence.Footnote ¹¹ At times, the residents of Khartoum had access to electricity and internet cutoff by the government. A period of unstable calm marked a return to teaching and university life, albeit under difficult conditions. This culminated in a civil war that remains ongoing.

In addition to these political and economic disruptions, empirical research on higher education in Sudan highlights long-standing structural barriers to the adoption of digital technologies in universities. Negla Osman’s study examining the acceptance and use of ICTs among academic staff in universities in Khartoum State demonstrated that limited infrastructure, insufficient institutional support, and lack of financial resources significantly constrain the effective use of online teaching tools; this situation continued post-2014.Footnote ¹² Although many staff members reported positive attitudes toward ICT and acknowledged its potential usefulness for teaching and research, actual levels of use remained low. The study further shows that factors such as unreliable electricity supply, weak internet connectivity, absence of technical support units, and lack of institutional policies promoting digital learning negatively affect both perceived ease of use and actual implementation of ICT in academic practice.Footnote ¹³ Importantly, the findings indicate that individual willingness alone is insufficient to sustain digital education in the absence of enabling organizational and national conditions. These constraints became particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, when universities were expected to shift rapidly to online platforms without the necessary technical, financial, or administrative preparedness.

Consequently, the challenges faced by Sudanese universities during the pandemic and subsequent political instability should be understood not only as a result of exceptional crises but also as an extension of pre-existing structural weaknesses in the higher education system, which continue to limit the adoption and sustainability of digital learning environments.

Before the war, the University of Khartoum offered a number of libraries, internet access, and a diverse student body with students from outside of Sudan. This was supported by an administrative framework that enabled the management of a large institution. Compared to universities in the Global North, the university lacked a number of essential facilities, including access to major online journals and publications and robust laboratory and teaching facilities. Nevertheless, the university has produced most of Sudan’s most prominent doctors, engineers, teachers, and so forth. The Department of Archaeology ran a number of successful undergraduate and graduate courses and conducted research and training excavations across Sudan.

By April 2023, life in Sudan was marked by a tragic turning point.Footnote ¹⁴ The war crippled vital infrastructure, led to the displacement and asylum of millions, widespread destruction of cities, and a near-total halt to basic services (Figures 1– 3). This crisis remains ongoing.Footnote ¹⁵ Education was among the hardest-hit sectors; particularly in conflict-affected regions where educational disruption disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, all Sudanese universities were closed, and some academic institutions were looted or destroyed, reflecting a tragic reality that made the search for safety and food the top priorities for students, families, and professors.Footnote ¹⁶

Figure 1.

The Department of Archaeology (University of Khartoum) before the war.

Figure 1. Long description

In the foreground left, a rectangular table is surrounded by adults and children on red, yellow, and blue chairs, with plates, drinks, and food items visible. To the right, a row of large red water coolers with white lids is placed on white stools, forming a line parallel to the main table. Behind the coolers, a group of people, mostly men and boys, are seated at a second table along the wall of the right building. Both buildings are painted orange with tiled roofs. Triangular banners in yellow, white, and orange are strung between the buildings. In the background, trees and a white vehicle are visible beyond the courtyard. The ground is a mix of tiled pavement and bare earth, with planters and scattered chairs.

Figure 2.

Destruction of the primary lecture room in the Faculty of Arts building.

Figure 3.

Destruction of the laboratory in the Department of Archaeology (University of Khartoum).

As universities adjust to these challenges, the growing reliance on online learning approaches has become critical for teaching, learning, and sustaining academic management processes. E-learning across Sudan faces major obstacles, including the collapse of digital infrastructure, shortages of qualified personnel, and the absence of legislative and policy frameworks to regulate online education in times of crisis. Additional challenges include weak learning management systems (LMSs), difficulties in designing and assessing online courses, limited technological resources, and poor internet connectivity. As a result, many universities depend on temporary alternatives, such as using WhatsApp groups for lectures. This situation underscores the urgent need for strategic planning, policy reform, and investment in digital infrastructure. Furthermore, addressing this gap through focused research can provide practical solutions for policymakers and establish a framework adaptable to other developing countries experiencing similar challenges.

While this paper does not seek to adopt an explicit political stance, it is important to acknowledge that teaching and learning during this period unfolded within the conditions of an armed conflict that has remained largely invisible in global academic and media discourses. Unlike other contemporary conflicts that have received sustained international attention, the civil war in Sudan progressed with limited visibility, despite its profound effects on everyday life, institutional stability, infrastructure, and access to education.Footnote ¹⁷ This relative invisibility has direct consequences for higher education, as disruptions to teaching, access to technology, and institutional continuity are often interpreted as isolated local challenges rather than as outcomes of structural violence and prolonged instability. Situating of teaching within this context allows the experiences described here to be understood not as individual or institutional choices but as responses to a broader condition of crisis that remains underrepresented in discussions of innovation, digital pedagogy, and education in conflict-affected regions. It is within this constrained and underrepresented context that the innovative pedagogical practices discussed in the following section emerged, highlighting the ways in which faculty adapted to unprecedented obstacles to continue instruction in Sudan.

3. Innovation in the face of crisis

By 2023, a number of universities had no choice but to shut down. The University of Khartoum continues to maintain an online presence against all odds. The Department of Archaeology, like other departments, has been subject to destruction and vandalism. This includes the destruction of classrooms, facilities, libraries, and archaeological teaching collections. Nevertheless, students continue to search for an education—not just as a means to gain a qualification but because they place great value on education itself. Moreover, there is a deep sense of connection with one’s heritage.

How does one provide an education amidst power outages, bombing, violence, and unreliable internet connections? The answer lies in individual and collective initiative. The University of Khartoum did previously operate an online LMS, accessible at lms.uofk.edu. The platform was created and first implemented in 2020 as part of a global trend toward digital transformation in higher education during crises, as part of the university’s emergency response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the suspension of face-to-face teaching.Footnote ¹⁸ This step represents a qualitative digital transformation and a significant institutional effort by the university administration to keep pace with global technological developments in higher education, even amid prolonged political instability, economic constraints, and, more recently, armed conflict. While the LMS enabled expanded access to digital teaching and learning, its effectiveness was constrained by infrastructural limitations, intermittent electricity supply, and unequal internet access among staff and students.Footnote ¹⁹

This digital platform served as the central hub for teaching, learning, and academic communication across all faculties and institutes. It enabled the delivery of lectures, assignments, assessments, and announcements, and facilitates interaction between students and instructors. The system functioned similarly to Moodle, an open-source LMS widely used by universities in Sudan and around the world. After enrolment, students could participate in courses, access educational resources, submit assignments, and trace their performance.

Students are the end users, but the platform required input by the wider community. Faculty members create and upload material, and administrators and technical staff maintain and manage the system. Overall, the platform offered significant advantages and it was adopted by a number of faculties, but it is currently not possible to realize its potential. Flexible access to learning requires all participants to have access to electronic devices and internet connectivity. The latter requires a significant amount of data. War disrupted training in how to use a technology that is new to many members of faculty and administrators. Additionally, creating complex content during a war is difficult at best. Aside from the general destruction and terror, staff have no access to libraries and other resources. In many cases, their personal books and documents were destroyed. Crucially, shortly after the outbreak of the civil war, the University of Khartoum lost access to its digital servers including both the LMS and its controller servers. This loss severely disrupted administrative and academic operations, including access to course materials, student records, staff, and communication systems.

The University’s Executive met to discuss the situation and decided to authorize the use of WhatsApp as the primary means of teaching and communication. The University used its HR records, before destruction, which included the phone numbers of students, and provided the information to the different Faculty lecturers, who then contacted their students by phone and WhatsApp. Many staff and students were displaced; some moved to neighboring countries such as Egypt, while others relocated to relatively safer regions within Sudan. The university community became geographically fragmented, which required significant effort to re-establish communication networks.

Engagement of students relied heavily on pre-existing social and academic networks. Departments coordinated with lecturers and teaching assistants to collect initial data on students, including their locations and access to communication tools. These networks were not newly created; rather, they built upon long-standing connections among student cohorts, including relationships between current and former students. Some students had to be contacted indirectly via their fellow students due to issues of connectivity or not having smartphones. Many students who had relocated to Egypt, Uganda, Kenya, and other countries were able to maintain more stable internet access, although at a significantly higher cost of living. Others within Sudan faced intermittent electricity and connectivity but remained engaged through WhatsApp whenever possible.

Access to the LMS was restored in late 2024, though the university continued to give permission for WhatsApp to be used. The latter is because students complained about the LMS due to the lack of reliable internet access and the prevalence of smartphones instead of laptops or tablets for receiving lecture materials and interacting with their lecturers.

The physical damage to university buildings and facilities further compounded the crisis. Rebuilding communication channels involved informal networks, personal contacts, and departmental coordination rather than centralized institutional systems. This context explains the shift toward more flexible and accessible tools such as WhatsApp.

With the total collapse of infrastructure, the inequality in access to phone and internet signals became more widespread. One of the most important issues was the ability to reach all students—an endeavor that was not always possible. Whereas during the pandemic the Global North could schedule a class, this proved impossible in Sudan due to (a) lack of access to computers or laptops, (b) variable and unreliable access to an internet connection, and (c) the spread of the war. It is not possible to attend classes regularly when attacks can strike your area at any given time. Connecting to the internet requires using Starlink against a fee that is substantial for the vast majority of people. As access to essential food and medicine became more restricted, students had to contend with hunger and sickness.

As a lecturer in the Department of Archaeology, I needed to find a way to bring education to those in need. At present, I am temporarily resident in Europe and my own situation is also precarious. Teaching archaeology in Khartoum is not merely about delivering lectures. Long group discussions are an essential feature of our pedagogy. This is a tradition of scholarship rooted in our cultural and religious values.

In view of these limitations, WhatsApp was the logical solution. Similar approaches using social media platforms to sustain educational continuity in disrupted contexts have been noted in previous research.Footnote ²⁰ It is free to download, easy to use, and has low data requirements. More importantly, it was a technology both students and lecturers were familiar with—even if we had access to other platforms, it is extremely difficult to train people in using these platforms during war. WhatsApp enables users to exchange files, including audio, PDFs, and images. The group chat functionality enables group interaction. It may be less sophisticated than virtual discussion rooms on major platforms, but in the absence of lecture halls and other facilities it was the logical option. More importantly, WhatsApp enables asynchronous communication, enabling those affected by displacement to join in whenever possible. In the face of the disintegration of communities, WhatsApp provided a vital link between people. The asynchronicity also helps those affected by the trauma of war and displacement. It is not possible to focus on learning and studying and attending classes at a set hour when you are facing violence, hunger, and displacement. However, the ability to check back in when possible helps students gain a sense of control in a chaotic world. They did not need to choose between education and survival—they could focus on survival and return to education when circumstances allowed.

Lectures were delivered in this format. Each section of the lecture was recorded as an audio file and sent to the students. Lecture notes and images were prepared as PDF files, keeping the file size reduced. This enabled students to download materials when connectivity was available. When circumstances allow it, the group meets online using the free version of Google Meet. This has a 60-minute limit for group calls and does not require licensed software. It is not always possible to spend one hour in this virtual environment, but it helped offer a further sense of community. After listening to the recordings, students were able to ask further questions and request clarifications. Answers were sent via text or audio files. Subsequently, students joined the group chat for a class discussion. This offered them the space to discuss ideas and collaborate. I opened the floor for discussion and debate, ensuring that all students participated. These discussions mimicked classroom conversations, although they were conducted via text messages.

Assignments were also submitted via WhatsApp, utilizing the private messaging function. Across the Global North, privately communicating with lecturers via WhatsApp would generally be considered problematic. However, the current situation necessitated a reframing of relationships and hierarchies. Given the lack of access to libraries and online scholarly articles, I reached out to my wider network across the Global North and asked for resources. Many colleagues obliged, and I was thus able to share resources with my students. To facilitate this, I created a group for each cohort and sent electronic resources to the group. Assignments were graded in accordance with the University of Khartoum’s policies and guidelines. I kept a register of final grades and submitted them to the University’s faculty.

Student responses to this teaching model were generally positive under the circumstances. However, a major concern consistently raised was the absence of fieldwork training. To address this, instructors began sharing recorded videos demonstrating field methods and encouraged students to apply basic observational practices in nearby, relatively safe locations where feasible. There is also a clear understanding that full practical training will need to be completed after the war.

Examinations provided a different set of challenges. University education in Sudan places great value on examination results, and there are robust procedures in place. The University of Khartoum rallied academics displaced across Sudan and, with the co-operation of local communities, established regional examination centers across the nation. The success of this initiative was also due to significant cooperation by other universities and educational institutions across Sudan. Aside from enabling examinations to take place, this system minimized the need for travel during dangerous times. The process was overseen by official committees, and each department ensured adherence to standards and procedures. Papers were then sent to lecturers, including myself, for grading. Results were sent to relevant heads of departments.

The e-learning platform will hopefully continue to develop when the country achieves a measure of stability. This will allow the University to continue its work towards innovation and wider accessibility. In the meantime, WhatsApp complemented the platform and enabled students to access an education. It may be seen as a reduced form of education, particularly when compared to the possibilities offered by the LMS. However, placed in the context of the ongoing war, we can see a balance emerges between the official digital system and the simple, supportive tool, reflecting the uniqueness of the Sudanese experience.

Despite the presence of an official e-learning platform at the university, communication through WhatsApp is still widely used. At the department where I work, students continue to submit their homework via WhatsApp, and the faculty administration as well as the different departments frequently send exam answer booklets through the application.

In addition, departmental committees such as the Archaeology Department share new postgraduate study proposals through WhatsApp for reading and review. I have also recently started teaching at the Department of Archaeology, University of Bahri, and the entire teaching process is also conducted through WhatsApp. The courses cover teaching at undergraduate and graduate levels. WhatsApp was also crucial to conduct discussions with university staff over the format of the course and the required aims and outcomes.

4. Reflecting on the challenges

It is difficult to comprehend the impact of war when it is not part of your lived experience. The innovations discussed here demonstrate that education can find alternative methods even in the most difficult circumstances. The current situation has reshaped the dynamics of teaching and learning. We have had to condense our time, increase our focus, and constantly adapt. Both students and educators were compelled to navigate unprecedented difficulties, where access to a single hour of internet became the gateway to sustaining academic life in times of war. Accessing Starlink is extremely expensive but even when food is scarce, education remains a priority for many people. Education is considered a tool of resistance, and the continuation of the educational process via WhatsApp is a message of resistance to war and destruction. In addition to the value of simplicity, there is not always a need for complex platforms, as a simple application like WhatsApp has proven its effectiveness. Furthermore, the need to redefine distance education in some regions and provinces in countries suffering from the scourge of war and crises is highlighted by the fact that this experiment presented a different model for digital education based on available means in a challenging context.

There were significant challenges in the inequality of internet access and how this affected students’ educational prospects. Internet conditions in Sudan deteriorated significantly during the war, including a near-total blackout in late 2023 and early 2024, with continued disruptions in regions such as Darfur and Kordofan. Different universities adopted varying strategies: some like the University of Khartoum (the university under discussion in this paper) relied on WhatsApp, while others used Telegram channels. This is due to the lower data requirements and flexibility. Access to technologies such as Starlink was extremely limited due to high costs. In some cases, private providers used generators to maintain connectivity, offering paid access to users. Regional inequalities were significant, and efforts were made to account for these disparities. Data were collected on students’ locations and circumstances to ensure equitable distribution of materials. On a personal level, I took additional steps to support students, including purchasing a smartphone for some students who lacked access to one. In another case, a PhD student lost his laptop and all research materials while in an active conflict zone in South Al-Fasher. Fortunately, as his supervisor, I had retained copies of some of his data, which allowed him to continue his work.

There are things which remain impossible. It is impossible to have practical laboratory experience. Fieldwork cannot be done anywhere except on the field. The Department of Archaeology at the University of Khartoum is the oldest archaeology department in Sudan. It has been at the forefront of major research projects and brought to light the majority of Sudan’s archaeological past, either by direct fieldwork or by training archaeologists who went on to work in other universities across Sudan. The department has also trained a large number of archaeologists who work at NCAM, the National Corporation of Antiquities and Museums.Footnote ²¹ All the archaeologists remaining in Sudan remain connected to the field. In quieter times, many archaeologists go check on sites close to their location. They document and monitor sites and share their findings via WhatsApp. Students living in relatively safe areas also conduct observations or collect data from their local surroundings (e.g., photographing sites, collecting simple samples, or preparing descriptive reports). These activities partially compensate for the absence of a shared field. A form of digital collaboration is then implemented by organizing group discussions on WhatsApp or an online platform to present students’ results and compare notes. This fosters a spirit of teamwork even in the absence of collective fieldwork. Case studies based on data and observations from previous missions have also been prepared. Overall, this provides an alternative albeit partial experience.

5. Lessons Learned from Teaching Archaeology During Armed Conflict: Conclusions

Recently, in 2026, in-person teaching in some regions has resumed where conditions permit. However, the transition has been uneven and challenging. Faculty members have faced significant personal and professional hardships. Many lost their homes, particularly in heavily affected areas such as the Airport district. Others lost essential academic resources, including laptops containing years of research and teaching materials. Salaries have become increasingly insufficient due to economic collapse and inflation. For faculty members teaching remotely from outside Sudan, there are additional pressures related to job security, institutional expectations, and the emotional burden of displacement. Even for those still inside Sudan, challenges include insecurity, lack of basic services, and unstable working conditions, the importance of this topic. This experience should not be presented as a permanent model for archaeological education, but rather as an emergency response that demonstrates resilience, adaptability, and the commitment to sustaining education under extreme conditions. The goal is not to replace traditional teaching methods but to preserve continuity and maintain student engagement until full academic and practical training can be restored.

There are a number of other lessons. Partial and imperfect education is preferable to none, but compensatory education will be required in the future through clear pathways offered by the university. While every effort has been made to provide the same level of remote education to students, there are ethical and practical concerns about fairness and inclusivity which are deserving of informed debate in the future for lessons learnt. Finally, there should be preparation for a new LMS for the future.

Transforming simplicity into effectiveness is testament to the Sudanese ability to adapt and overcome. The country has a long experience with the unequal distribution of resources, and this builds resilience and innovation. Sudan has faced numerous disruptions in its history. It also has a long-standing tradition of valuing knowledge. Sudan’s diversity is its strength, particularly because it is home to many rich traditions and forms of knowledge. Across the millennia, the Sudanese have developed the ability to find alternate paths and what may seem like unconventional solutions. But to us, they are part of our epistemologies. It is hoped that this paper encourages people to consider the contribution of knowledge by the Global South. Education is not merely about learning—it is about resistance, resilience, and community. In a country where community bonds are highly valued, WhatsApp becomes a tool for the continuation of old traditions. The innovation lies in using what most people see as simple technologies for complex problems, but the knowledge that leads to these decisions has a long history. Do not see us in Sudan as a local exception or merely in terms of endurance, but as a global example of Africa’s contribution to knowledge and innovation.