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Challenging Authority, Seeking Community, and Empowerment in the New Left, Black Power, and Feminism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2011

W. J. Rorabaugh
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In the 1960s three major sociopolitical movements, the New Left, Black Power, and feminism, arose in the United States. All three represented assaults on older ideas about the nature of authority, especially as expressed in a hierarchical fashion, all attached a premium to a sense of community, which was defined narrowly to include only members of each group, and all actively sought empowerment for themselves. The present essay examines this matrix. It begins by considering briefly the common historical background and early civil rights activity that influenced and to some extent linked all three movements. The essay then traces in turn each movement's beginning, development, and situation at the end of the Sixties. It explores how these movements shared certain values, expressed those ideas in different settings, and were interrelated in myriad, shifting ways. The overall complex interaction of these three movements suggests a common social critique that was greater than the sum of its parts.

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Journal of Policy History , Volume 8 , Special Issue 1: Integrating the Sixties: The Origins Structures, and Legitimacy of Public Policy in a Turbulent Decade , January 1996 , pp. 106 - 143
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Copyright © The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. 1996

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References

Notes

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14. Gitlin, Sixties, 57–58; Miller, Democracy, 16, 47, 55–56; Harrison, Cynthia, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945–1968 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1988), 69–72Google Scholar; Hayden, Tom, Reunion: A Memoir (New York, 1988), 45–46Google Scholar; Isserman, Maurice, If I Had a Hammer: The Death of the Old Left and the Birth of the New Left (New York, 1987), 194–98Google Scholar. See, in general, Bernstein, Irving, Promises Kept: John F. Kennedy's New Frontier (New York, 1991)Google Scholar.

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16. On sectarianism, see Isserman, Hammer. On Port Huron, see Miller, Democracy, 106–25; “The Port Huron Statement,” ibid., 329–74; Sale, SDS, 47–59. See also Hayden, Reunion, 84–102.

17. On left-fringe ties, see Gitlin, Sixties, 74–75; Miller, Democracy, 28, 43–45, 160–61, 179 (quote at 161). Dylan's importance can be understood best through his early songs, which others widely performed and recorded before Dylan became a star. Bob Dylan, The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan (1963) and The Times They Are A-Changin' (1964). See also Dylan, Bob, Lyrics, 1962–1985 (New York, 1985; orig. 1973)Google Scholar. On drugs, see Miller, Democracy, 238; Sale, SDS, 204, 211, 264. See also Lasch, Christopher, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York, 1978)Google Scholar.

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19. On liberal origins, see Miller, Democracy, 23, 31–32, 71, 72, 74, 179, 219, 224–25; Sale, SDS, 89n; Evans, Personal Politics, 105–7; Gitlin, Sixties, 60, 66; Hayden, Reunion, 6. On the Cold War, see Miller, Democracy, 51, 108, 111–17, 120–22, 127–35; Hayden quote from Michigan Daily, September 22, 1960, ibid, 31; “The Port Huron Statement,” ibid., 329; Sale, SDS, 51–52, 55. On the Cuban Missile Crisis, see Miller, Democracy, 163–65.

20. Miller, Democracy, 35, 73–74, 116–17, 135–37; Sale, SDS, 89; Evans, Personal Politics, 120–24; Gitlin, Sixties, 67, 72–76.

21. Miller, Democracy, 139–40, 161–62; Sale, SDS, 60–68, 239–40; Breines, Wini, Community and Organization in the New Left, 1962–1968 (New York, 1982), 13–17Google Scholar. See “The Port Huron Statement,” in Miller, Democracy, 329–74. See, in general, Isserman, Hammer.

22. On openness, see Miller, Democracy, 205–6; Sale, SDS, 90. On participatory democracy, see Miller, Democracy, 94–95, 142–48, 152–54, 207; “The Port Huron Statement,” ibid., 333. On male domination, see Evans, Personal Politics, 108–9, 116, 166–67.

23. On ERAP, see Miller, Democracy, 184, 190–217; Evans, Personal Politics, 129–55; Sale, SDS, 102–115, 131–50; Hartmann, Margin, 39; Breines, Community, 80–82. On Newark, see Tom Hayden, Reunion, 123–50, and on Chicago, see Gitlin, Todd and Hollander, Nanci, Uptown: Poor Whites in Chicago (New York, 1970)Google Scholar. On black ideas, see Carson, Claborne, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 217Google Scholar; King, Mary, Freedom Song: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement (New York, 1987), 499Google Scholar; Morgan, Robin, Going Too Far: The Personal Chronicle of a Feminist (New York, 1978), 102Google Scholar.

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25. Miller, Democracy, 226–37, 249–51, 255–59; Sale, SDS, 171–99, 208, 213–14, 219–21, 226–36. One of the fullest chronicles of the antiwar movement is by the Socialist Workers party's Halstead, Fred, Out Now! A Participant's Account of the American Movement Against the Vietnam War (New York, 1978)Google Scholar.

26. On the draft, see Sale, SDS, 253–64, 302–4, 311–16, 319–24; Evans, Personal Politics, 170–73. On draft-card burning, see Rorabaugh, Berkeley, 92, 115; Sale, SDS, 322–24.

27. On women and the draft, see Evans, Personal Politics, 170–73, 179, 181–82, 185; Sale, SDS, 357; Hartmann, Margin, 40. On the poster, see Baez, Joan, And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir (New York, 1987), 152–53Google Scholar; third illustration following p. 254. Baez's husband, David Harris, was a Resistance leader and went to jail. Harris, David, Dreams Die Hard: Three Men's Journey Through the Sixties (New York, 1982)Google Scholar. On the Resistance, see Lynd, Alice, ed., We Won't Go: Personal Accounts of War Objectors (Boston, 1968)Google Scholar; Ferber, Michael and Lynd, Staughton, The Resistance (Boston, 1971)Google Scholar.

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30. A full account of the PL takeover is in Sale, SDS, 557–99 (Walls quote at 566). Early warnings are in ibid., 210–11; Miller, Democracy, 67, 139.

31. Dylan's line is from “Subterranean Homesick Blues,” Bringing It All Back Home (1965). On Weatherman, see Jacobs, Harold, ed., Weatherman (Berkeley, 1970)Google Scholar. The bombing is in Powers, Thomas, Diana: The Making of a Terrorist (Boston, 1971)Google Scholar; Sale, SDS, 3–5. A fictionalized but psychologically correct account is offered in the film, A Small Circle of Friends (1980). On male domination, see Ti-Grace Atkinson, “The Sacrifice of Lambs” (1969), in Amazon Odyssey (New York, 1974), 29Google Scholar; Ferree, Myra M. and Hess, Beth B., Controversy and Coalition: The New Feminist Movement (Boston, 1985), 57–61Google Scholar; Morgan, Going Too Far, 4 (quote), 82–83, 115.

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33. Miller, Democracy, 151–52; Morgan, Going Too Far, 61. See, in general, Sale, SDS. All youth movements suffer from impatience. See Feuer, Lewis S., The Conflict of Generations: The Character and Significance of Student Movements (New York, 1969)Google Scholar.

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38. On the Civil Rights Act, see Graham, Hugh D., The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York, 1990), 74–99Google Scholar, 125–52; Carson, In Struggle, 123–29; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 337. See also Stern, Mark, Calculating Visions: Kennedy, Johnson, and Civil Rights (New Brunswick, 1992)Google Scholar. On the 1964 convention, see Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 345–51; Giddings, When and Where, 293–95; King, Freedom Song, 343–52; Lewis, King, 252–53. On Voting Rights, see Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 389, 395, 400, 406–8, 411; Graham, Civil Rights, 162–76; Lewis, King, 269, 277, 283–85, 294. On the long-term consequences, see Parker, Frank R., Black Votes Count: Political Empowerment in Mississippi (Chapel Hill, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On Selma, see Garrow, David J., Protest at Selma: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (New Haven, 1978)Google Scholar; Lewis, King, 264–93.

39. On Watts, see Conot, Robert, Rivers of Blood, Years of Darkness (New York, 1967)Google Scholar.

40. On nationalism, see Breitman, George, The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary (New York, 1967), 147Google Scholar; Carson, In Struggle, 204–5, 217, 219–20; King, Freedom Song, 533; Bracey, John H. Jr., Meier, August, and Rudwick, Elliott, eds., Black Nationalism in America (Indianapolis, 1970)Google Scholar On Jones, see Jones, Hettie, How I Became Hettie Jones (New York, 1990)Google Scholar. Lewis, David L., W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race (New York, 1993)Google Scholar; Duberman, Martin B., Paul Robeson (New York, 1988)Google Scholar. On music, see The Rolling Stone Rock Almanac (New York, 1983)Google Scholar.

41. On Black Muslims, see Giddings, When and Where, 318; Lomax, Louis E., When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World (Cleveland, 1963)Google Scholar.

42. On Malcolm X, see Malcolm, X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York, 1965)Google Scholar; Breitman, Last Year. See also Malcolm, X, Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements, ed. Breitman, George (New York, 1965)Google Scholar.

43. On the laws, see Carson, In Struggle, 141–42, 235. On disintegration, see ibid., 137, 181, 186; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 423–24; Hayden, Reunion, 162–63; King, Freedom Song, 432, 442, 476; Lewis, King, 248–51, 286–87. On the Great Society, see Matusow, Allen J., The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York, 1984), 217–71Google Scholar.

44. On NWRO, see Freeman, Politics, 73–74; Giddings, When and Where, 304; Hartmann, Margin, 36–38. See also West, Guida, The National Welfare Rights Movement: The Social Protest of Poor Women (New York, 1981)Google Scholar. The sociologists Cloward and Piven argued that such pressure, including an all-out effort by eligible poor people to receive benefits, would force the political system to respond to poverty in a serious way. Ibid., 23–32, 37; Hartmann, Margin, 36; Richard A. Cloward and Frances Fox Piven, “A Strategy to End Poverty,” The Nation, May 1966. On the Poor People's Campaign, see Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 582–83, 591, 595–99, 607–9; Giddings, When and Where, 304, 312; Hayden, Reunion, 259–61; Matusow, Unraveling, 396–97. See also Abernathy, Ralph, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography (New York, 1989)Google Scholar.

45. Carson, In Struggle, 128, 175–90; Evans, Personal Politics, 95–98; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 424; King, Freedom Song, 494–96; Sale, SDS, 125n. See also Forman, James, The Making of Black Revolutionaries: A Personal Account (New York, 1972)Google Scholar; Haines, Herbert H., Black Radicals and the Civil Rights Mainstream, 1954–1970 (Knoxville, 1988)Google Scholar; Sellers, Cleveland, The River of No Return: The Autobiography of a Black Militant and the Life and Death of SNCC (New York, 1973)Google Scholar.

46. Carson, In Struggle, 219; Evans, Personal Politics, 97; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 481–83, 492; Giddings, When and Where, 315; Hartmann, Margin, 33; Hayden, Reunion, 162; King, Freedom Song, 500–501, 503–4, 506–7; Murray, Song, 402. On separatism, see Carson, In Struggle, 191–211; King, Freedom Song, 502–4, 510. In general, see Carmichael, Stokely and Hamilton, Charles V., Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York, 1967)Google Scholar; Carmichael, Stokely, Stokely Speaks: Black Power Back to Pan-Africanism (New York, 1971)Google Scholar.

47. On black power, see Carson, In Struggle, 127–28, 209–10, 215–28; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 481–82, 484–85, 487–88, 490–92, 532–34. See also William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago, 1992). On the Great Society, see Matusow, Unraveling, 217–71; Carson, In Struggle, 169; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 535; Hayden, Reunion, 261.

48. Matusow, Unraveling, 110–13, 124–26, 244–70; Carson, In Struggle, 238–39; 258–60; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 538–41, 545; Miller, Democracy, 271; West, Welfare, 20–22.

49. Carson, In Struggle, 216, 223, 233–34; Garrow, Bearing, 481–82; Hayden, Reunion, 163.

50. On Carmichael, see Carson, In Struggle, 227, 230, 237–38, 243, 251; Giddings, When and Where, 315; Hayden, Reunion, 163–65. On Brown, see ibid., 163; Giddings, When and Where, 315; Carson, In Struggle, 244, 252–57, 259–60. On Karenga, see ibid., 281, 283, 288; Davis, Autobiography, 161, 194; Giddings, When and Where, 316.

51. Giddings, When and Where, 317; Davis, Autobiography, 163–85. In general, see Cleaver, Eldridge, Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, ed. Scheer, Robert (New York, 1969)Google Scholar; Newton, Huey P., Revolutionary Suicide (New York, 1973)Google Scholar; Seale, Bobby, A Lonely Rage: The Autobiography of Bobby Seale (New York, 1978)Google Scholar. See also Brown, Elaine, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York, 1992)Google Scholar. Two useful surveys are Major, Reginald, A Panther Is a Black Cat (New York, 1971)Google Scholar; Marine, Gene, The Black Panthers (New York, 1969)Google Scholar. On the appeal to the white Left, see Gitlin, Sixties, 348–51; Hayden, Reunion, 308–9; Morgan, Going Too Far, 94. A droll treatment is provided in Wolfe, Tom, Radical Chic and Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers (New York, 1970)Google Scholar.

52. Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 47; Hartmann, Margin, 33; bell hooks, Ain't I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism (Boston, 1981), 5–9Google Scholar.

53. Carson, In Struggle, 222, 224, 226; Hayden, Reunion, 161, 164; Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 391, 395–96. On COINTELPRO, see Carson, In Struggle, 284, 288. See also U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports of Intelligence Activities and Rights of Americans, Book 3 (Washington, D.C., 1976), 185–224 (commonly called the Church Report).

54. Stampp, Kenneth M., The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York, 1956), viiGoogle Scholar. Stampp's statement attracted little notice until the 1960s, when he felt compelled to add an explanatory note. In recent editions the note has been incorporated in the text.

55. On race and gender, see Gornick, Vivian, “The Next Great Moment in History Is Theirs” (1969), in her Essays in Feminism (New York, 1978), 5–9Google Scholar; King, Freedom Song, 468, 470–71. On women in civil rights, see ibid., 261–62, 469–70; Giddings, When and Where, 278–81, 285–87. On Hamer, see ibid., 287–90; Carson, In Struggle, 73–74; King, Freedom Song, 140–44.

56. On the 1950s, see Freeman, Jo, The Politics of Women's Liberation: A Case Study of an Emerging Social Movement and Its Relation to the Policy Process (New York, 1975), 24–27Google Scholar, 32; Harrison, Account, xi, 171–72; May, Elaine T., Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988)Google Scholar. For a different interpretation, see Rupp, Leila J. and Taylor, Verta, Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women's Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s (New York, 1987), 194–95Google Scholar.

57. Freeman, Politics, 17, 24, 29–34; Klein, Gender Politics, 50–55. On divorce, see ibid., 69–74, 79; Hartmann, Margin, 23. Two books spurred change: de Beauvoir, Simone, The Second Sex (trans., New York, 1953; orig. Paris, 1949)Google Scholar; and Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique (New York, 1963)Google Scholar.

58. Roosevelt also opposed the ERA. Harrison, Account, 73–80, 83, 85–87, 109–37; Freeman, Politics, 52; Reeves, Kennedy, 433; Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 166–74.

59. On the ERA, see Harrison, Account, 125–26, 129, 134; Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 351–52; Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 169, 171. On the Equal Pay Act, see Freeman, Politics, 171, 175–76; Harrison, Account, 87, 89–105; Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 175. On networks, see Freeman, Politics, 48, 52, 65–67; Harrison, Account, 165. The two groups are ibid., 159, 174.

60. On Friedan, see Harrison, Account, 159, 171–72; King, Freedom Song, 78. On state commissions, see Harrison, Account, 161, 185. On Title VII, see ibid., 177–81; Freeman, Politics, 54, 171; Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 357; Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 176–78. The most complete account is Brauer, Carl M., “Women Activists, Southern Conservatives, and the Prohibition of Sex Discrimination in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act,” Journal of Southern History 49 (1983): 37–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Graham, Civil Rights, 134–40.

61. Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 54; Freeman, Politics, 179, 181, 184–85; Harrison, Account, 187, 192; Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 366; Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 179. In general, see Graham, Civil Rights, 205–32. On newspaper ads, see Freeman, Politics, 77–79; Harrison, Account, 188–90.

62. Freeman, Politics, 54–55; Giddings, When and Where, 303–4; Graham, Civil Rights, 225–28; Harrison, Account, 191–97; Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 366–68; Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 180. For the inside story, see Friedan, Betty, It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement (New York, 1976), 75–911Google Scholar.

63. Freeman, Politics, 56, 75–76, 80–81, 97–99; Harrison, Account, 197–208; Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 181–83; “NOW Bill of Rights” (1967), in Morgan, Robin, ed., Sisterhood Is Powerful (New York, 1970), 512–14Google Scholar.

64. On Murray, see Giddings, When and Where, 304; Harrison, Account, 126, 134; Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 173; and in general, Murray, Song in a Weary Throat. On black women, see Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 58; Freeman, Politics, 40–42; Giddings, When and Where, 302, 307; Hartmann, Margin, 32; King, Freedom Song, 462–64; Morgan, Sisterhood, xxvi, xxviii.

65. Evans, Personal Politics, 46, 78–81; King, Freedom Song, 75–76, 124, 126, 464–66.

66. Evans, Personal Politics, 56–57; Hartmann, Margin, 32; King, Freedom Song, 172, 288, 442–55.

67. On ideas, see Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 45–47; Freeman, Politics, 28; King, Freedom Song, 76–78, 172. On religion, see ibid., 54–55, 274–76; Evans, Personal Politics, 28–36. On southerners, see Chappell, David L., Inside Agitators: White Southerners in the Civil Rights Movement (Baltimore, 1994)Google Scholar.

68. On pressure, see Evans, Personal Politics, 79, 94; Freeman, Politics, 143–44; King, Freeman Song, 488, 492–96, 510–18, 530–33; Morgan, Going Too Far, 14. On ideas, see Freeman, Politics, 28, 51; Morgan, Going Too Far, 102–3. On Waveland, see Evans, Personal Politics, 85–88 (Carmichael quote at 87); Freeman, Politics, 57; Giddings, When and Where, 302; King, Freedom Song, 442–55. The memo is reprinted at 567–69.

69. On early SDS, see Evans, Personal Politics, 108; Gitlin, Sixties, 364–65, 368; Hayden, Reunion, 107–8. On WSP, see Gitlin, Sixties, 92–93, 99, 181, 265, 293; Hartmann, Margin, 41–42; Swerdlow, Amy, Women Strike for Peace: Traditional Motherhood and Radical Politics in the 1960s (Chicago, 1993)Google Scholar.

70. On rights activists, see Evans, Personal Politics, 89, 97–99; Giddings, When and Where, 303; Hartmann, Margin, 33; King, Freedom Song, 499. On Urbana, see Evans, Personal Politics, 101, 156–57, 162–66; Freeman, Politics, 57; Giddings, When and Where, 303; Gitlin, Sixties, 369–70; Sale, SDS, 252. On the 1967 meeting, see Freeman, Politics, 58; Gitlin, Sixties, 370–71; Sale, SDS, 362. The cartoon is in New Left Notes, 10 July 1967. On NCNP, see Evans, Personal Politics, 196–98; Freeman, Politics, 60.

71. Evans, Personal Politics, 124, 200, 205–6, 214–15. On Freeman, see Freeman, Politics, vii–xi, 109–11. On consciousness-raising, see ibid., 117; Gitlin, Sixties, 371; Hayden, Reunion, 421.

72. On Miss America, see Freeman, Politics, 112–13, 150; Morgan, Sisterhood, 521–24; Morgan, Going Too Far, 62–67. On the press, see ibid., 63. On WITCH, see ibid., 71–81; Morgan, Sisterhood, 538–53; Evans, Personal Politics, 224; Gitlin, Sixties, 362–64 (quote at 363), 373. Rat is in Morgan, Going Too Far, 116 (“Goodbye to All That” [1970]), 123–30 (quote at 130).

73. Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 27, 35; Freeman, Politics, 9; Harrison, Account, ix, 220; King, Freedom Song, 458; Morgan, Sisterhood, xxii.

74. Gornick, “Next Great Moment,” 21–22; Morgan, Sisterhood, xxiii; Atkinson, Amazon Odyssey (1968 speech quoted), 5. A good introduction to radical feminism is Echols, Alice, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975 (Minneapolis, 1989)Google Scholar.

75. Freeman, Politics, 103–8; Morgan, Going Too Far, 60–61. “We are all still imprisoned by Marx,” wrote Ti-Grace Atkinson in Amazon Odyssey, xxiii.

76. Freeman, Politics, 108; Evans, Personal Politics, 66–68.

77. Perhaps the most vivid exception in terms of violence was Valerie Solanis, “Excerpts from the SCUM (Society for Cutting Up Men) Manifesto,” (1968), in Morgan, Sisterhood, 514–19. In June 1968, Solanis put her theory into practice by shooting Andy Warhol. Atkinson, Amazon Odyssey, 107n.