Index

Congyan Cai; Larissa van den Herik; Tiyanjana Maluwa

Index

References such as ‘178–9’ indicate (not necessarily continuous) discussion of a topic across a range of pages. Wherever possible, in the case of topics with many references, either these have been divided into subtopics or only the most significant discussions of the topic are listed. Because the entire work is about the UN ‘Security Council’, the use of this term (and certain others that occur constantly throughout the book) as an entry point has been restricted. Information will be found under the corresponding detailed topics.

2005 World Summit Outcome, 8, 90, 132, 224

abstentions, 4, 49, 77, 79–80, 123, 128, 153, 189, 220, 260

China, 76–77

Russia, 295

abuses, 8, 22, 27, 31, 34, 40, 44, 50, 289, 295

accountability, 11, 13, 34, 41, 133, 138, 253, 256, 287, 288

Accountability, Coherence and Transparency (ACT) Group, 11, 100, 118, 256, 265–267, 290

Code of Conduct, 267, 290

accusations, 39, 67, 78, 94–95, 139–141, 238

cyber, 139–140

ACSRT (African Centre for the Study and Research on Terrorism), 243

acts of aggression, 9, 46–47, 69, 289

ad hoc committee, 214–215

affirmative votes, 9, 75–77, 107, 208, 217, 226

Afghanistan, 146, 162–164

Africa, 104–105, 187–188, 196–198, 232–246, 252–258, 260–263, 269–275

actors, 237, 285

and Russian invasion of Ukraine, 258–264

and the West, 20

common position, 202, 257–258

Horn of Africa, 273, 275

leaders, 129, 212, 216

non-permanent Security Council members, 187, 206, 217, 238, 256, 260, 272, 275

North Africa, 40, 130

peacekeeping in, 231, 234–235

permanent seats on Security Council, 254–258

region, 254, 268

Russia’s rising presence in, 238–241

West Africa, 175, 271

See also individual countries

African Centre for the Study and Research on Terrorism (ACSRT), 243

African Group, 177, 255, 257, 269

African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA), 222, 233, 273

APSA Roadmap, 270–271

African Standby Force, 105, 233

African Union (AU), 12, 14–15, 17, 125, 186, 196–197, 200–201, 243–244, 292

and United Nations (UN), 204, 219, 254, 275

Article 4(h) AU Constitutive Act and Security Council, 197–203

AU response to Libya intervention, 213–223

collaboration on international terrorism, 204, 219, 242–254, 275

AU Constitutive Act, 197, 203, 207, 210, 214, 219, 234, 237, 250, 251, 267

Article 4(h), 197–203

Article 4(j), 197, 198, 214, 251

Article 9(1)(g), 201

AU Mission to SomaliaSee AMISOM

AU Roadmap, 214–215

AU Transition Mission in SomaliaSee ATMIS

collaboration with United Nations, 242–254

Executive Council, 202, 216

partnership peace operations, practice in, 196–254

Peace and Security Council (PSC), 197, 200, 201, 210, 211, 213, 214, 219, 220, 243, 245, 250, 251, 270, 271, 273

members, 213–223

Peace and Security Protocol, 200, 201, 222, 243, 273

perceptions of UN Security Council, 258–264

response to UN Security Council’s decision and action on Libya, 213–223

aggression, 6, 34, 52, 55, 120, 156, 283, 289–290, 294

acts of, 9, 46–47, 69, 289

Russian, 5–7, 156, 169, 283–284

AIDS, 62–64, 269

Albania, 120, 278

Allain, Jean, 201–202

Al-Shabaab, 250–252

AMISOM (African Union Mission to Somalia), 82, 244, 250–254

annexation, 54–5, 263, 288

anticipatory self-defence, 137–138, 142

APSASee African Peace and Security Architecture

Arab League, 79, 125–126, 129

armed attacks, 9, 47, 68, 89, 135, 137, 141, 284, 292

armed conflict, 132–133, 166, 175, 240

armed force, 9, 37, 47

armed intervention, 90, 226

armed opposition groups, 54, 250–251

arms, 147, 221, 239–240

embargoes, 124, 145, 221

Arria formula, 114

meetings, 11, 122, 136, 153, 177–178, 180, 265, 273

Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), 95

Assad government, 4–5, 131

assistance

humanitarian, 121, 169, 172, 214, 250, 275

logistical, 233

military, 55, 105, 148, 156

ATMIS (African Union Transition Mission in Somalia), 252

atrocity-crimes, 119–120

attribution, 139–141, 143, 184

Australia, 111–112, 116

Austria, 116, 138, 151–152

authorised use of force, 123, 128, 147, 286

authorisations, 89, 132–133, 283

authoritarianism, domestic, 6

authority, 14, 20–21, 86, 104, 108, 192, 194, 198–200, 213

of external actors, 12–13

Belgium, 116, 167

Berlin, 161, 275

Bosco, David, 21, 23, 60

Brazil, 91–93, 102, 116, 120, 123–126, 132–134, 208–209, 217, 226–228, 255

BRICS countries, 91, 124, 206, 222–224, 226, 229–230

Responsibility to Protect (R2P) post-Libya intervention, 223–238

Burkina Faso, 248

Cambodia, 45–47

Central African Republic (CAR), 145, 232, 240–241, 271

centralism, 186, 189, 191

and regionalism, 186–277

future trajectories and need for reforms, 254–274

centre and periphery, 284, 291–295

Chad, 248See also Lake Chad

Charter (UN), 8–10, 13–14, 61–62, 68–71, 86–89, 113–115, 147–151, 156–159, 191–192, 195–198

amendments, 8, 266, 295–296

Article 51 reporting, 134–136

provisions, 33, 38, 40–41, 51, 86, 202

Charter-centred international order, 50, 88

China, 4–7, 46–49, 56–59, 67–98, 105–107, 205, 224–226, 228–239

abstentions, 76–77

ascension to Security Council, 72–98

behaviour, 23, 75, 77, 83, 85

contributions to peace operations, 78, 83, 232

Five Points, 58–59

Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, 83

international legal policies, 75, 82, 189

more powerful, 19, 22–24, 73–74, 81, 108

new power constellation, 79–82

normative role in Security Council, 23–24, 87–98, 108

voting affinity with United States, 76–77

Xinjiang, 67, 95–96, 98, 173

China Institute for International Studies (CIIS), 133

Chinese diplomats, 75–76

civil society, 20, 172

civil wars, 4, 95, 129, 242

civilians, 79–80, 123, 126–127, 130, 142–143, 157, 203–204, 207–209, 217–218

protection of, 72, 126, 132, 204, 216–217, 245

climate crisis, 176–180, 190, 268–274, 276

effects of, 178, 263, 270–271

unconventional global threats, 268–274

coalition interests, 189

‘coalition of the willing’, 4

codes of conduct, 11, 100, 118, 256, 266–267, 288, 296

coercive measures, 78, 156, 226, 229

Cold War, 2–3, 16–24, 42–45, 47–49, 53, 104, 108, 188–189, 196–198

‘new Cold War’, 5, 20, 53–60, 110, 189, 261, 289

collective security, 111, 189–190, 202, 213, 227–228, 230, 276

system, 50, 100, 111–112, 116, 143, 148, 186–188, 216, 252, 266

collective self-defence, 50, 69, 292–294

committees, 127, 142–145, 214

ad hoc, 214–215

Foreign Affairs, 39–40, 130

sanctions, 145, 165, 168

compliance, 41, 52, 115, 155, 196, 243, 280

comprehensive strategic partnership (CSP), 56–59

conflict situations, 202, 271, 292

conflicts

armed, 132–133, 166, 175, 240

management, 191–192, 201

military See military conflicts

prevention, 197, 272–273, 275

conformity, 35–38, 96

consensus See international consensus

consent, 57, 81, 92, 145, 148–150, 235, 246–247, 279–280

consent-based use of force, 145–150

Constitutive Act (AU) See African Union (AU)

consultations, 101, 145, 173, 250, 291

contractors, private military, 240–241

cooperation, 7, 17, 20, 57–58, 170, 173, 242–244, 249, 274, 276

economic, 234

forbidden areas, 7, 58

counter-extremism, 65–66, 68, 96–98, 175, 253

counter-terrorism, 64–67, 95, 169, 173–174, 184, 188, 190, 242–244, 252

New Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, 64–67, 96–97

objectives, 250, 252

operations, 244–245, 248, 253

regimes, 166, 245

sanctions, 160

Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC), 170–171

Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED), 170

COVID-19, 3, 62–64, 72, 176, 269

Crimea, 54–5, 122, 263

crimes, 12, 90, 119, 206, 210–211, 219, 267

against humanity, 11–12, 90, 100, 119, 197–198, 224, 266–267

transactional organised, 248, 268

war, 12, 100, 119, 197–198, 224, 266–267

crises, 12, 91, 205, 209–211, 214–215, 246, 260, 262–265, 268

climate, 176, 180, 190, 263, 268, 274, 276

humanitarian, 91–92

international public health, 62–64

Kosovo, 51

Libya, 94, 190, 206, 211–213, 221

migrant, 40, 130

Syria, 54, 59, 74, 78, 81, 94, 205

Ukraine, 54–55, 58–59, 108, 121, 279, 284, 289–291, 295

customary international law, 148–149, 152, 158, 230–231

cyber-attacks, 61, 68–72, 141

cyber-defence, 70

cyber operations, 139, 141, 181, 184

cybersecurity, 68–72, 180

cyberspace, 68–70, 140–141

cyber warfare, 68, 71–72

Cyprus, 116

Darfur, 74, 81, 205–206, 238, 270–271

decision-making, 120, 122, 130, 132, 134, 188–189, 191, 204, 264–265

procedures, 29, 101, 280, 287

processes, 34, 189, 194–195, 256, 264, 277, 285

delisting requests, 163–164, 167

democracy, 5, 49, 57, 94, 111–112, 199, 241, 258

Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), 146, 175, 232, 264, 271See also MONUSCO

desertification, 178, 269–270

dichotomies, 191, 278, 294–295

diplomacy, 83, 206, 220, 225, 257, 262, 276

preventive, 132, 193

diplomats

Chinese, 75–76

Libyan, 206

directives, 2

disarmament obligations, 4, 52

discourses

legal, 17, 284

political, 48, 208, 276

use of force, 123, 146, 150, 155, 167, 183

discretion, 36, 40, 115, 120, 140–141, 290

disputes, 12, 21, 36, 38, 46, 69–71, 88, 90, 103

international, 90, 92

over uses of force, 123–155

regional, 191–192

domestic affairs, interference in, 66–67, 189

domestic authoritarianism, 6

domestic level, 24, 26–27, 60, 173, 194

domestic power shifts, 7

domestic society, 18, 26–27, 107, 284

draft conclusions, 116–118, 153

draft resolutions, 59, 78–80, 85, 89, 93–95, 259–260, 265, 268

credible, 100, 119, 266

droughts, 178, 269–270

ecological changes, 178, 270–271See also climate crisis

economic interests, 80, 131, 209–210, 234–235

economic power, 280, 282

economic powers, 111, 209

economic sanctions, 2, 81, 294

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 198–199, 236, 246–249

elected members of Security Council, 8, 13, 15, 32, 101, 112–113, 118, 179–180

Emergency Special Sessions, 55–56, 121, 157

empowerment of other UN organs, 9–11

enforcement, 4, 37, 60, 80, 92, 115

actions, 91, 192, 198, 213

law, 26, 35–36, 107, 139

measures, 2, 19, 36–37

peace, 35–36, 197, 244, 248

Europe, 54, 55, 169, 293, 296See also individual countries

European Union, 110, 214, 249, 293

experts, 1, 139, 145, 167–168, 287

panels, 144–147, 163, 167–168, 183–184, 220

extremism, 61, 64–68, 95–98, 169, 174, 242

combating, 66, 97

novel threats and Security Council response, 64–68

stretching Security Council prerogatives, 169–

violent, 65–66, 174, 190, 253–254, 270

extremists, 98, 248

acts of, 96–97

‘Ezulwini Consensus’, 129, 202–203, 211, 219, 255–257

failure to decide and inaction, 264–268

Federal Member States (FMS), 252

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), 51, 88, 105

Five Points, 58–59

Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, 83

food insecurity, 178, 270

forbidden areas of cooperation, 7, 58

force, use of See use of force

Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda (FDLR), 146

Foreign Affairs Committee (UK), 39–40, 130

foreign policy, 44, 49, 58–59, 75–76, 82–83, 85, 205, 231, 240

tools, 156, 281

formal reforms, 7–8

Forum on China–Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), 234

France, 44–46, 75–77, 93–94, 99–102, 118, 125–126, 129–130, 138–139, 247–248

forces, 248–249

functions in peace and security architecture, 1–3

Gabon, 120, 206, 208, 259

Gaddafi, Muammar, 40, 128, 130, 143, 211–212, 215–216, 218

regime, 94, 124, 127, 204, 206–208, 210–211, 214, 226, 230

General Assembly (UN), 9–11, 47–48, 55–56, 63–66, 70–71, 121, 156–159, 256–257, 260–261, 267–268

Charter Committee, 136

resolutions, 41, 55, 58, 72, 91, 193, 231, 290

general international law, 36–37, 41, 267, 276

genocide, 9, 11–12, 67, 90, 95, 100, 104, 119, 197–198, 265–267

Rwanda, 37, 104, 198, 264

unsubstantiated claims, 144

Germany, 79, 110–111, 115–116, 123–126, 140–141, 161–162, 208–209, 255, 257

Ghana, 120–121, 259

Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, 64–67, 96–97

global governance, 57, 85, 182

global interests, 92, 95, 205, 231

global polarisation, 1, 14

global power shift, 18–108

global powers, 49, 237, 258, 276See also great powers

global security, 178, 190, 271

global threats, unconventional, 175–176, 268

good faith, 30, 57, 115, 128, 137, 213, 289

governance, 18, 26, 28, 113, 236, 241, 284

global, 57, 85, 182

great powers, 18–24, 27–33, 39, 42–44, 49, 51, 60–61, 89, 99–105, 107–108

legal privileges of, 20, 23, 28, 43, 119

legal restraints on, 23, 31–32

‘responsible’, 82–83, 112

unanimity, 279

gross violations of human rights, 45–46, 67

Group of Five Sahel (G5S), 248–249

Group of Seven (G7), 112

Group of Eight (G8), 51

Group of Nine (G9), 111, 112

Group of 77 (G77), 176, 177, 229

group veto, 32

Haiti, 106, 161

harmonious world, 48, 83

Horn of Africa, 273, 275

hostilities, 58, 62, 176, 214, 232, 248

human rights, 12, 15, 45–46, 49, 57, 66–68, 90, 95–96, 111, 172–174

protection, 66, 172, 253

violations of, 4, 12, 40, 45, 68, 206, 210, 219, 241–242

gross, 45–46, 67

humanitarian assistance, 121, 169, 172, 214, 250, 275

humanitarian crises, 91–92

humanitarian disasters, 47, 104

humanitarian intervention, 45, 74, 89–92, 198–200, 209, 216, 223, 225–226

humanitarian law, 66, 122, 133, 145, 210, 219, 240, 293

humanity, 45, 47, 291

crimes against, 11–12, 90, 100, 119, 197–198, 224, 266–267

inaction, 22, 42, 72, 104, 152–154, 190, 277–278, 288, 297

and failure to decide, 264–268

inclusion, 268, 272–273, 286

inclusive processes, 123–155

India, 91–93, 120, 123–126, 169, 208–209, 226, 239, 241, 255, 259

information and telecommunications (ITCs), 70

Institut de Droit International (IDI), 148

institutional capabilities, 105, 108, 274

institutional environment, 112, 114

bolstering, 118–122

institutional perspective, 113, 117, 128, 130, 142, 183–184

institutional reforms, 188, 255

institutional strength, 22, 25, 98, 109–185

bolstering institutional environment, 118–122

disputes on uses of force and inclusive processes, 123–155

Resolution 1973 and wavering international consensus, 123–131

future trajectories and unconventional global threats, 175–181

institutionalist perspective on, 115–117

proposals to refine use-of-force decision-making and discourse, 131–155

and Article 51 reporting, 134–136

broadening reporting requirements to other uses of force, 147–150

potential backlash of insisting on reporting, 150–155

Responsibility while Protecting (RwP), 132–134

Responsible Protection (RP), 132, 134, 228, 229

substantiation of reporting requirements, 136–146

sanctions outside and inside UN institutional framework, 155–169

development of procedures and remedies, 159–169

non-UN sanctions as challenge to Security Council prerogative, 156–159

terrorism and extremism, stretching Security Council prerogatives, 169–

institutionalisation, 8, 182–183

institutionalist perspective, 16, 112–114, 175, 184

interests

coalition, 189

global, 92, 95, 205, 231

national, 78, 204–205, 258, 280–281

political, 15, 152, 196

state, 27–28, 31, 47

strategic, 53, 80, 104, 205, 221, 232, 237, 275

International Criminal Court (ICC), 2, 124–125, 129, 206–207, 221

International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS), 90, 287–288, 298

international consensus, 15, 191, 204, 208, 236, 247, 267

wavering, 123–131

international humanitarian law, 133, 145, 210, 219, 240, 293

international law-based international order (ILBIO), 87See also rules-based international order (RBIO)

International Law Commission (ILC), 35, 114, 117, 158

international lawyers, 20, 25, 33, 124, 165

international legal order, 15, 18–19, 73, 92, 109, 136

international level, relationship between politics and law, 23, 25–29

international obligations, 66, 102

international order, 56, 73, 85, 87, 109–110, 113, 230

Charter-centred, 50, 88

international organisations, 11–12, 115–116, 144, 182, 185, 246, 250, 286

international peace, 1–2, 14–15, 19–22, 29–34, 60–63, 72–73, 86–89, 186–188, 191–194

maintenance of, 16, 22, 60, 192, 197

or peace between only the great powers, 60–61

international politics, 7, 208, 222

international public health crisis, 62–64

international relations, 18–19, 48–49, 56, 61, 76, 84, 87–88, 225, 275, 291

international responsibilities, 36, 82, 92, 212

international rule of law, 21, 27, 189, 194–196, 205, 277

international security, 46, 70, 141

international society, 18, 26–31, 62, 84, 107, 284

international system, 82, 87, 194–196

international terrorism, 190, 236, 242, 247, 249, 276

interpretation, 9–10, 36–37, 50, 88, 123, 199, 201, 204, 208

interventions

armed, 90, 226See also interventions, military

humanitarian, 45, 74, 89–92, 198–200, 209, 216, 223, 225–226

Libya, 4, 102, 123–124, 132, 142, 147, 183, 213, 222–224, 229

NATO, 208, 210, 213, 220, 262

military, 12, 45, 54, 80, 90, 102, 132–133, 211, 287, 294

invasions

Iraq, 50–52

Ukraine, 109, 263, 278, 291

Iraq, 39–40, 50–52, 143

invasion, 50–52

War, 38–39, 52, 92

Iraqi Freedom, Operation, 39, 52

Ireland, 120–121, 167–168, 178, 257

ISIL (so-called Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant), 40, 130, 160, 165, 166, 169, 176

ISIS (so-called Islamic State of Iraq and Syria), 52

Italy, 102, 111, 116, 141, 147, 255

ius cogens, 7, 42, 114–118, 158, 195, 200

breach of, 118, 158

Japan, 111, 118, 239, 255, 257

joint statements, 57, 182, 259, 291

Kelsen, Hans, 35–38

Kenya, 120, 207, 259, 261

Korea, 9

North, 9, 47, 121

South, 47, 111–112, 255

War, 47, 56

Kosovo, 4, 12, 51, 56, 113

Krisch, Nico, 20–21, 37

Kuwait, 50–52

Lake Chad, 178, 271–274

land degradation, 178, 269–270

Lavrov, Sergey, 53, 87, 128

law enforcement, 26, 35–36, 107, 139

League of Arab States (LAS), 125–126, 203, 209, 211, 213–214, 226, 292

legal claims, 136–137, 142, 144, 151, 154

legal discourse, 17, 284

legal limits, 41, 115, 119, 286, 288, 295

legal obligations, 30, 139–140, 150, 266

legal privileges of great powers, 20, 23, 28, 43, 119

politics of, 29–31

legal proposals, 16, 22–24, 98–99, 107

legal restraints on great powers, 23, 31–32

legalised actions and politicised institution, 33–42

legislative activities, 38, 41

legislative resolutions, 41, 172, 179

legitimacy, 158, 161, 194, 195, 246, 248, 281–283, 285, 290–292, 296–297

deficits, 161, 228

Libya, 39–40, 79–81, 93–94, 128–131, 190, 203–223, 240–241, 261–262, 286–287

AU response to Security Council’s decision and action on Libya, 213–213

authorities, 125, 207, 214

conflict, 203–231

crisis, 94, 190, 206, 211–213, 221

diplomats, 206

intervention in, 4, 102, 123–124, 132, 142, 147, 183, 213, 222–224, 229

NATO, 208, 210, 213, 220, 262

Transitional National Council (TNC), 215

See also UNSMIL

Liechtenstein, 10, 121, 138, 152, 155, 167, 256, 268

Loughlin, Martin, 24–26

maintaining peace during global power shift, 18–108

China’s ascension and Security Council, 72–98

novel threats and the response of the Security Council, 61–72

power politics’ influence on Security Council workings, 42–61

Security Council between politics and law, 23–42

Mali, 159, 165, 190, 233, 236, 240–241, 244–249, 252, 271, 276 See also MINUSMA

Mauritania, 248

Mexico, 58–59, 99, 102, 118, 120–121, 134–136, 138, 147, 149–151, 155

migrant crisis, 40, 130

military alliances, 58–59

military assistance, 55, 105, 148, 156

military conflicts, 2, 47, 60

protracted, 126, 208–209

military contractors, private, 240–241

military coups, 106, 246

military force, 2, 65, 130, 227

military interventions, 12, 45, 54, 80, 90, 102, 132–133, 211, 287, 294

military operations, 127, 150, 176, 215–216, 247, 260, 283

military solutions, 126–127, 218

military support, 201, 241, 246, 294

MINUSMA (Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali), 190, 233, 236, 246–249

MONUSCO (Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo), 233, 264

Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJWA), 236, 248

Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in MaliSee MINUSMA

multilateralism, 111, 118, 129, 139, 182–183

multilateralist perspectives, 187–188, 277

Muslims, 67, 95

Myanmar, 205, 222, 225, 238, 265

national interests, 78, 204–205, 258, 280–281

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 23, 51, 53, 55, 210, 213, 215, 260, 262, 292–294

actions, 51, 102, 213, 222

expansion, 54, 58, 284

intervention in Libya, 208, 210, 213, 220, 262

involvement, 204, 210, 213, 219

members, 51, 55, 102

membership, 53

operations, 204, 215, 230

Netherlands, The, 15, 116, 139, 167

‘new Cold War’, 5, 20, 53–60, 110, 189, 261, 289

New World Order, 5, 22–23, 42, 48–49, 81, 191

Niger, 248, 272

Nigeria, 125, 206, 208, 215

non-authorised use of force, 136, 141

non-interference, 88–89, 105, 111, 132, 189, 198, 205, 224–226, 232–234

non-intervention, 30, 70, 91, 228, 231

principle of, 57, 66, 90, 92, 231, 254

non-permanent members of Security Council, 24, 31–32, 101, 136, 149, 193, 208, 227, 282, 287See also elected members of Security Council

non-proliferation, 121, 166, 297

non-state actors, 50, 113, 135, 137–138, 142, 161

non-UN sanctions, 263

as challenge to Security Council prerogative, 156–159

non-Western powers, 21, 189, 229 See also China; Russia

norms, 92, 95, 97, 155, 207–209, 223–228, 230–231

ius cogens, 116–117

new, 70, 89, 92, 110, 152, 199, 230–231

norm ‘antipreneur’, 24, 88, 92, 108, 230–231

norm entrepreneur, 24, 88, 95, 108, 229

norm defender, 88–89

norm taker, 116, 200, 267

peremptory, 88–89, 223, 237

North Africa, 40, 130

North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationSee NATO

North Korea, 9, 47, 121

Norway, 120–121, 167

novel threats and Security Council response, 61–72

cyber-attacks, 68–72

extremism, 64–68

international public health crisis, 62–64

obligations, 30, 52, 66, 99, 102, 118, 140–141, 170–171, 264

binding, 170, 288

disarmament, 4, 52

international, 66, 102

state, 3, 71

treaty, 147, 241

See also requirements

Ombudsperson, 163–167, 183

Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG), 71

Operation Iraqi Freedom, 39, 52

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), 144, 181

Organisation of African Unity (OAU), 105, 234, 242

member states, 197, 242

Terrorism Convention, 241–243

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), 293

Organization of American States (OAS), 106–107, 293

Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the CongoSee MONUSCO

organs, 10, 14, 33, 38, 40–41, 63–64, 73, 115, 121

empowering other UN organs, 9–11

political, 33, 40, 113, 115, 294

P5 See permanent members of Security Council

pandemic, 62, 64, 72, 176, 179, 269

panels of experts, 144–147, 163, 167–168, 183–184, 220

partnership peacekeeping, 17, 189, 192–193, 196, 250, 276

partnerships, 98, 104, 187–188, 197, 219, 231, 237, 274, 292

past Security Council responses, 7–13

authority of external actors, 12–13

empowering other UN organs, 9–11

formal reforms, 7–8

informal mechanisms, 11, 14

peaceSee international peace

peace and security architecture, 1–3, 14

Peace and Security Council (PSC) (AU), 197, 200–201, 210–211, 213–214, 219–220, 243, 245, 250–251, 270–271, 273

members, 220

Peace and Security Protocol (AU), 200–201, 222, 243, 273

peace enforcement, 35–36, 197, 244, 248

peace operations, 187–190, 193, 232–236, 238, 242, 244–246, 250, 274, 276

collaborative, 186, 219

peace support operations, 238, 250, 252

peaceful coexistence, 83

peaceful settlement of disputes, 69–71, 90, 92

peacekeepers, 63, 234–236, 241, 245

peacekeeping, 81–82, 188–190, 193, 197, 232, 239, 244–246, 250, 275–276

forces, 79, 81, 244

in Africa, 231, 234–235

missions, 81, 83, 233, 235, 239, 253, 258, 263, 274, 276

operations, 40, 44, 74, 78–79, 192, 197, 231–233, 244–245, 247

partnerships, 17, 189, 192–193, 196, 250, 276

peacemaking, 193, 197

penholders, 101, 232, 237, 247

People’s Republic of China (PRC)See China

peremptory norms, 116, 200, 267

periphery, 104, 112, 187–188, 191–192, 237, 274–275, 278, 284, 291–295

Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), 29

permanent members of Security Council (P5), 8–11, 13, 15, 30, –75–77, 118–119, 255–256, 263, 281–2, 289–291

permanent memberships, 19, 56, 256

permanent seats on Security Council, 113, 223, 255–256, 277

for Africa, 254–258

Plan of Action for Preventing Violent Extremism, 174, 253

Pol Pot, 45–47

polarisation, global, 1, 14

police, 233, 284

function, 35, 38

policies, 58, 76, 79, 82–83, 104, 187, 189, 211, 244–245

international legal, 75, 82, 189

pro-Western, 49, 53

political discourse, 48, 208, 276

political environment, 1, 3–7, 16, 179

political interests, 15, 152, 196

political organs, 33, 40, 113, 115, 294

political power, 13, 17, 187, 285, 294, 296

political reforms, 126, 214

politicised institution and legalised actions, 33–42

politics, 16, 20–27, 29, 107, 152, 154, 191, 208

and law

international level, 25–29

legal privileges and great powers, 29–31

legal restraints on great powers, 31–32

politicised institution and legalised actions, 33–42

Security Council between, 24–42

of legal privileges

and great powers, 29–31

of powerSee power politics

post-Cold-War era, 48, 115, 184, 187–190, 193, 230, 232, 237–238, 274–277

power

and law, 13, 16, 278, 284, 294, 296

economic, 280, 282

political, 13, 17, 187, 285, 294, 296

raw, 31, 112, 280, 285

rising, 223, 276

veto, 28, 30–32, 43–44, 75–77, 80, 99–100, 255–258, 264–266, 268

power constellation, 53, 280, 283, 295

power dynamics, 192–193, 204, 276

power politics, 20–24, 42, 44, 46–47, 107–108, 112–113, 115, 275, 279

influence on Security Council workings, 42–61

Cold War, 42–48

‘new Cold War’, 53–60

New World Order, 48–52

Security Council for international peace or for peace between only the great powers, 60

negative impact, 22, 61

perspective, 32, 53, 79, 98, 108, 205

power shifts

domestic, 7

global, 18–108

powers

economic, 111, 209

global See global powers

great See great powers

non-Western, 21, 189, 229See also China; Russia

war, 131, 287

Western, 18–19, 37, 54–58, 73–74, 77, 79–84, 86–87, 205, 227, 230

world, 44

primacy of the Security Council, 104–105, 187–190, 194, 197, 200–202, 228, 274–275, 277, 291, 296

principles of international law, 28, 70, 157, 276

private military contractors, 240–241

privileges, 8, 20, 29–31, 44, 99, 101, 121, 167

legal See legal privileges

special, 120

procedural proposals, 289

procedural reforms, 162, 168, 183, 264, 266

proportionality, 137–138, 142, 157, 173

proposals

legal, 16, 22–24, 98–99, 107

procedural, 289

reform, 8, 16

to refine use-of-force decision-making and discourse, 131–155

protection of civilians, 72, 126, 132, 204, 216–217, 245

protocols, 96, 200–201, 222, 243, 273

protracted military conflicts, 126, 208–209

pro-Western policy, 49, 53

proxy wars, 54, 56

Putin, Vladimir, 5, 54, 262, 294

radicalisation, 2, 65

raw power, 31, 112, 280, 285

recommendations, 2, 5, 9, 47, 66, 99, 175, 273–274

reconfiguration of regionalism, 17, 274

reforms, 85, 91, 95, 100, 162–163, 168, 254, 256–257, 264, 267

formal, 7–8

future, 98, 108

institutional, 188, 255

need for, 254–274

political, 126, 214

procedural, 162, 168, 183, 264, 266

regional and universal approaches, 98–108

sanctions, 160, 169, 183

regional actors, 17, 152, 291–292

regional agencies, 192–193, 198

regional approach, 17, 23, 43, 98–108

regional arrangements, 22, 98, 104, 193, 198–200

regional councils, 191

regional interests, 17

regional organisations, 14–17, 104–106, 186–188, 190–192, 196–197, 199–200, 202–204, 213, 273–276, 291–293

regional peace and security, 243, 247, 274

regional perspective, 113, 187, 275, 277

regionalism, 14, 189, 191–193

and centralism, 186–277

future trajectories and need for reforms, 254–274

partnering with regional organisations, 191–196

AU partnership peace operations, 196–254

AU–UN collaboration on international terrorism, 242, 254

reconfiguration, 17, 274

reporting, 103, 142, 288

Article 51, 134–136

potential backlash against insisting on, 150–155

requirements, 22, 102, 135–136, 141, 146–150, 158, 288

broadening, 147–150

substantiation, 136–146

requirements, 34, 36–38, 40–41, 94, 140, 147–148, 150, 163, 219, 281

reporting, 22, 102, 135–136, 141, 146–150, 158, 288

rule of law, 173, 196

See also obligations

resolutions, 34, 38–40, 80–81, 101–102, 172, 196, 220, 222, 271–272, 274

adopted, 50, 55, 60, 64–65, 156, 175, 203

draft See draft resolutions

General Assembly, 41, 55, 58, 72, 91, 193, 231, 290

legislative, 41, 172, 179

Resolution 1973 of 2011

and NATO intervention, 203–213

and wavering international consensus, 123–131

Responsibility to Protect (R2P), 84, 89, 92, 99, 124, 127, 132, 133, 177, 190, 198, 202, 204, 207, 208, 217, 219, 222, 230, 276

Responsibility while Protecting (RwP), 91, 132–134, 227–228

Responsible Protection, 92, 132–134, 228–229

rising powers, 223, 276

rule of law, 5, 16, 26–27, 34, 66, 138, 183, 189, 194–196, 241

international, 21, 27, 189, 194–196, 205, 277

requirements, 173, 196

rules-based international order (RBIO), 86–87See also international law-based international order (ILBIO)

Russia, 4–7, 48–49, 51–60, 78–81, 126–128, 130–131, 225–226, 230–233, 238–241, 258–261

aggression, 5–7, 156, 169, 283–284

in Ukraine, 48, 120, 259, 261–262, 279, 292

Article 51 letter, 283–284

invasion of Ukraine, 109, 157, 188, 190, 258, 260, 262–263, 278, 291

pro-Western policy, 49, 53

rising presence in Africa, 238–241

Rwanda, 90, 104, 265, 267

genocide, 37, 104, 198, 264

Sahel, 165, 236, 240, 247–249, 261, 271–273

San Francisco Conference, 30–31, 43, 104, 189, 191

sanctions, 36–37, 49, 58–60, 77, 106–107, 114, 145–146, 155, 156–162, 237–238, 263

and development of procedures and remedies, 159–169

committees, 145, 165, 168

comprehensive, 156, 161

economic, 2, 81, 294

financial, 168, 183, 293

imposition, 155, 159, 206, 221, 237, 241

individual, 124, 164

machinery, 162, 167, 169

non-UN, 156–159, 263

outside and inside UN institutional framework, 155–169

reform, 160, 169, 183

regimes, 114, 144, 159–169, 183, 238

targeted, 160–161, 238

threats of, 93, 280

tool, 155–156, 169

unilateral, 13, 60, 114, 158–159, 169, 183, 237–238, 263

scrutiny

legal, 26

public, 11, 140

security

global, 178, 190, 271

international, 46, 70, 141

issues/matters, 12, 14–17, 63, 68, 188, 233, 235

threats, 61, 186, 268–274

self-defence, 51, 68–71, 89, 123, 134–138, 142, 147, 150–152, 170, 283–284

anticipatory, 137–138, 142

collective, 50, 69, 292

self-interest, 205, 257, 281

settlement, 103, 272

peaceful, 69–71, 90, 92

Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), 67, 96

members, 96–97

silence, 62, 117, 152–155, 173, 199, 261

Slovenia, 116

society

civil, 20, 172

domestic, 18, 26–27, 107, 284

Somalia, 164, 190, 197, 233, 238, 244–245, 250–252, 271, 276

Federal Government of Somalia (FGS), 252

Transitional Federal Government, 250

See also AMISOM; ATMIS

South Africa, 91–94, 116, 125–128, 130, 214–215, 217, 225–226, 260, 272–273

South Korea, 47, 111–112, 255

South Sudan, 205, 233, 235, 264

sovereign equality, 8, 28, 31, 70, 88

sovereign states, 27, 29, 50, 107, 195, 298

sovereignty, 45–47, 69–70, 83–84, 88–90, 202, 209, 225–226, 230, 232–234, 259

principle of, 45, 55, 69, 89, 228

Soviet Union, 9–10, 18–19, 22, 43–47, 49, 54, 60, 75–76, 108, 192–193See also Russia

Spain, 116, 255

Spain, Anna, 120, 264–265

special military operations (SMOs), 20, 55, 58–60, 284

Five Points, 58–59See also Ukraine

Special Rapporteurs, 116, 152, 171–174, 253

state interests, 27–28, 31, 47

state obligations, 3, 71

state responsibility, 118, 157–158

state sovereigntySee sovereignty

subregional organisations, 197, 244, 247

Sudan, 81–82, 92, 177, 205–206, 233, 240–241, 269

South, 205, 233, 235, 264

sustainable development, 176

Switzerland, 116, 161–162, 167, 256

Syria, 54, 78, 80, 92–95, 104, 131–133, 205, 222, 230–231, 265–266

Assad government, 4–5, 131

crisis, 54, 59, 74, 78, 81, 94, 205

Syrian people, 59, 78

Taliban, 162–164

targeted sanctions, 160–161, 238

tensions of Security Council’s operation, 13–14

territorial integrity, 45, 50, 55, 58, 202, 208–209, 214, 259, 288, 291–292

terrorism, 51, 64–67, 96–97, 170–171, 173–175, 236, 242–244, 247–248, 253–254

combating/countering, 51, 97, 172, 242, 244, 253

international, 190, 236, 242, 247, 249, 276

stretching Security Council prerogatives, 169–

transnational, 244, 247

terrorist acts, 50, 65, 172

terrorist attacks, 50, 98, 135, 235–236, 242, 252

terrorist groups, 65, 169, 176, 236, 238, 249, 251–252

alleged, 172, 236, 297

terrorist organisations, 248, 251

third-party countermeasures, 157–158

threat multipliers, 178, 270–271

threats

novel See novel threats

security, 61, 186, 268–274

terrorist, 137, 165, 236

to the peace, 61, 64

unconventional, 175–176, 190, 268–274, 276

Togo, 116, 197, 247

trajectories, 1, 14, 23, 98, 190, 223, 254, 276

future, 175–181, 254–274

of Security Council’s operation, 13–14

Transitional National Council (TNC), 215

transnational organised crime, 248, 268

transnational terrorism, 244, 247

transparency, 11, 20, 41, 134–136, 141, 155, 256, 286

lack of, 253, 297

treaties, 28, 169–170, 241, 243, 280

treaty obligations, 147, 241

Tunisia, 129, 178, 207, 272

Ukraine, 6–7, 54–60, 122, 156–157, 258–260, 262–263, 278–279, 282–284, 291–294

crisis, 54–55, 58–59, 108, 121, 279, 284, 289–291, 295

Russian aggression, 48, 120, 157, 188, 190, 258–262, 279, 292

special military operationSee special military operations (SMOs)

war, 5, 10, 259, 275, 278–298

centre and periphery, 284, 291–295

procedures, 285–290

unanimity, 9, 32, 43, 47, 208, 246, 280

great powers, 279

unconventional global threats, 175–176See also climate crisis

unilateral sanctions, 13, 60, 114, 158–159, 169, 183, 237–238, 263

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)See Soviet Union

United Kingdom (UK), 39, 44–46, 50–52, 75–78, 93–94, 100–103, 125–126, 129–130, 138–139

United Nations (UN)

and African Union (AU), 204, 219, 254, 275

collaboration to fight international terrorism through peace operations, 242–254

Charter See Charter

General Assembly (UNGA)See General Assembly

Group of Governmental Experts (UNGGE), 69–71, 140

Monitoring Verifying and Inspection Commission (UNMVIC), 39

organs, 14, 38, 41, 63–64

empowering organs other than Security Council, 9–11

University (UNU) Report, 166–168

See also MINUSMA; MONUSCO; UNSMIL

United States, 39, 43–53, 56–62, 67–69, 71–72, 75–78, 94–95, 101–104, 109–112

Uniting for Peace (UfP), 9–10, 47–48, 56, 158, 260, 294–295

unity, 4, 14, 16, 21, 42–43, 49, 103, 108, 208

and territorial integrity of Libya, 209, 214

national, 55

relative, 3, 8

universal approach, 98–108

universality of international law, 19, 86

UNSMIL (United Nations Support Mission in Libya), 220

use of force, 51–52, 55, 88–90, 102, 126–128, 132–137, 142–144, 147–148, 201–202

authorised, 123, 128, 147, 286

consent-based, 145–150

decision-making, 131–155

discourse, 123, 146, 150, 155, 167, 183

non-authorised, 136, 141

use of veto, 114, 118–119, 121

USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) See Soviet Union

Uygur, 67, 95–96

vetoes, 3–4, 9–11, 30–31, 99, 118–121, 255–259, 265–268, 281–282, 288–290

draft resolutions, 80, 222

Resolution, 73, 92, 228

use of, 114, 118–119, 121

veto initiative, 121, 290

veto power, 28, 30–32, 43–44, 75–77, 80, 99–100, 255–258, 264–266, 268

victims, 261–262

Viet Nam, 45–47, 178

violations, 37, 207, 210–212, 231, 234, 259, 263, 267, 288–289, 293

of international law, 6, 35, 37, 157, 289–290

violence, 80, 122, 125–126, 132–133, 204, 208, 210, 271–272

violent extremism, 65–66, 174, 190, 253–254, 270

votes

abstention See abstentions

affirmative, 9, 75–77, 107, 208, 217, 226

concurring, 9, 281

negative, 189

Wagner Group, 240–241

war crimes, 12, 100, 119, 197–198, 224, 266–267

war powers, 131, 287

wars, 23, 61–62, 73–75, 186, 188, 261–263, 275, 278, 284, 289–290

proxy, 54, 56

Ukraine, 5, 10, 239, 263, 275, 278–279, 284–285, 290, 294

Warsaw Treaty Organisation, 53

water scarcity, 178

West Africa, 175, 271

Western dominance, 7, 16

Western powers, 18–19, 37, 54–58, 73–74, 77, 79–84, 86–87, 205, 227, 230

Western states, 4–7, 10, 49, 67, 76, 81, 89, 94–97, 176

World Health Organization (WHO), 64, 176, 179, 269

world peace, 18–19, 43

Xi Jinping, 5, 83, 87, 96

Xinjiang, 67, 95–96, 98, 173

Yalta formula, 281–282

Yemen, 145, 149, 205, 222

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