5.2.1 The Basics

The first step in preparing a poster is to be cognizant of the specific requirements put forth by the selected venue. For example, very specific guidelines often are provided, detailing the amount of board space available for each presenter (typically a 4-foot by 6-foot standing board is available). To ensure the poster will fit within the allotted space, it may be helpful to physically lay it out prior to the conference. This also may help to reduce future distress, given that back-to-back poster sessions are the norm; knowing how to arrange the poster in advance obviates the need to do so hurriedly in the few minutes between sessions. If you are using PowerPoint to design your poster, you can adjust the size of your layout to match the conference requirements.

5.2.2 Tips For Poster Construction

The overriding goal for poster presentations is to summarize your study using an easily digestible, reader-friendly format (Reference GrechGrech, 2018b). As you will discover from viewing other posters, there are many different styles to do this. If you have the resources, professional printers can create large glossy posters that are well received. However, cutting large construction paper to use as a mat for laser-printed poster pages can also appear quite professional. Some companies will even print the poster on a fabric material, so it can be folded up and stored easily in a suitcase for travel to and from the conference. Regardless of the framing, it is advisable to use consistent formatting (e.g., same style and font size throughout the poster), large font sizes (e.g., at least 20-point font for text and 40-point font for headings), and alignment of graphics and text (Reference Zerwic, Grandfield, Kavanaugh, Berger, Graham and MershonZerwic et al., 2010). Another suggestion for enhancing readability and visual appeal is to use bullets, figures, and tables to illustrate important findings. Generally speaking, brief phrases (as opposed to wordy paragraphs) should be used to summarize pertinent points. It has been suggested to limit horizontal lines to 10 or fewer words and avoid using more than four colors (Reference Zerwic, Grandfield, Kavanaugh, Berger, Graham and MershonZerwic et al., 2010). In short, it is important to keep your presentation succinct and avoid overcrowding on pages. Although there are a variety of fonts available and poster boards come in all colors imaginable, it is best to keep the poster professional. In other words, Courier, Arial, or Times New Roman are probably the best fonts to use because they are easy to read and they will not distract or detract from the central message of the poster (i.e., your research). In addition, dark font (e.g., blue, black) on a light background (e.g., yellow, white) is easier to read in brightly lit rooms, which is the norm for poster sessions. Be mindful of appropriately acknowledging any funding agencies or other organizations (e.g., universities) on the poster or in the oral presentation slides. Recently, the format of posters has shifted. The “better poster” format (https://youtu.be/1RwJbhkCA58) includes the main research finding in large text in the center of the poster with extra details and figures on the sides (Figure 12.1). This allows conference attendees to quickly assess whether the research is of interest to them and if they would like more detailed information.

Figure 12.1 Poster formats.

5.2.3 What To Bring

When preparing for a poster presentation, consider which materials might be either necessary or potentially useful to bring. For instance, it might be wise to bring tacks (Reference GrechGrech, 2018b). It also is advisable to create handouts summarizing the primary aims and findings and to distribute these to interested colleagues. The number of copies one provides often depends on the size of the conference and the number of individuals attending a particular poster session. We have found that for larger conferences, 20 handouts are a good minimum. In general, handouts are in high demand and supplies are quickly depleted, in which case, you should be equipped with a notepad to obtain the names and addresses of individuals interested in receiving the handout via mail or e-mail. With the “better poster” format, researchers often include a QR code on their poster. The QR code can link them to a copy of the poster, contact information of the researchers, or other relevant electronic documents.

5.2.4 Critically Evaluate Other Posters

We also recommend critically evaluating other posters at conferences and posters previously used by colleagues. You will notice great variability in poster style and formatting, with some researchers using glossy posters with colored photographs and others using plain white paper and black text. Make mental notes regarding the effective and ineffective presentation of information. What attracted you to certain posters? Which colors stood out and were the most readable? Such informal evaluations likely will be invaluable when making decisions on aspects such as poster formatting, colors, font, and style.

5.2.5 Prepare Your Presentation

Poster session attendees will often approach your poster and ask you to summarize your study, so it is wise to prepare a brief overview of your study (e.g., 2 minutes). In addition, practice describing any figures or graphs displayed on your poster. Finally, attendees will often ask questions about your study (e.g., “What are the clinical implications?”, “What are some limitations to your study?”, “What do you recommend for future studies?”), so it may be helpful to have colleagues review your poster and ask questions. Table 12.1 provides some suggestions as to how to handle difficult questions.

5.4.1 The Basics

Similar to poster sessions, it is important to be familiar with and adhere to program requirements when preparing for oral presentations. For symposia, this might include sending an outline of your talk to the Chair and Discussant several weeks in advance and staying within a specified time limit when giving your talk. Although the Chair often will ensure that the talks adhere to the theme and do not excessively overlap, the presenter also can do this via active communication with the Chair, Discussant, and other presenters.

5.4.2 What To Bring

As with poster presentations, it is useful to anticipate and remember to bring necessary and potentially useful materials. For instance, individuals using PowerPoint should bring their slides in paper form in case of equipment failure. Equipment, such as microphones, often are available upon request; it is the presenter’s responsibility, however, to reserve equipment in advance.

5.4.3 Critically Evaluate Other Presenters

By carefully observing other presenters, you might learn valuable skills of how to enhance your presentations. Examine the format of the presentation, the level of detail provided, and the types and quality of audiovisual stimuli. Also try to note the vocal quality (e.g., intonation, pitch, pace, use of filler terms such as “um”), facial characteristics (e.g., smiling, eye contact with audience members), body movements (e.g., pacing, hand gestures), and other subtle aspects that can help or hinder presentations.

5.4.4 Practice, Practice, Practice

In terms of presentation delivery, repeated practice is essential for effective preparation (see Reference Williams, Pequegnat and StoverWilliams, 1995). For many people, students and seasoned professionals alike, public speaking can elicit significant levels of distress. Given extensive data supporting the beneficial effects of exposure to feared stimuli (see Reference WolpeWolpe, 1977), repeated rehearsal is bound to produce positive outcomes, including increased comfort, increased familiarity with content, and decreased levels of anxiety. Additionally, practicing will help presenters hone their presentation skills and develop a more effective presentational style. We recommend practicing in front of an “audience” and soliciting feedback regarding both content and presentational style. Solicit feedback on every aspect of your presentation from the way you stand to the content of your talk. It might be helpful to rehearse in front of informed individuals (e.g., mentors, graduate students, research groups) who ask relevant and challenging questions and subsequently provide constructive feedback (Reference GrechGrech, 2018a; Reference Wellstead, Whitehurst, Gundogan and AghaWellstead et al., 2017). Based on this feedback, determine which suggestions should be incorporated and modify your presentation accordingly. As a general rule, practice and hone your presentation to the point that you are prepared to present without any crutches (e.g., notes, overheads, slides).

5.4.5 Be Familiar and Anticipate

As much as possible, try to familiarize yourself with the audience both before and during the actual presentation (Reference Baum and BoughtonBaum & Boughton, 2016; Reference RegulaRegula, 2020). By having background information, you can better tailor your talk to meet the professional levels and needs of those in attendance. It may be particularly helpful to have some knowledge regarding the educational background and general attitudes and interests of the audience (e.g., is the audience comprised of laymen and/or professionals in the field? What are the listeners’ general attitudes toward the topic and towards you as the speaker? Is the audience more interested with practical applications or with design and scientific rigor?). Are you critiquing previous work from authors that may be in the audience? By conducting an informal “audience analysis,” you will be more equipped to adapt your talk to meet the particular needs and interests of the audience. It is important to have a clear message that you want the audience to take with them after the presentation (Reference RegulaRegula, 2020). Most conference-goers will be seeing many presentations during the conference, so having a clear take-home message can make it easier for the audience to remember the key points.

Similarly, it might be helpful to have some knowledge about key logistical issues, such as room size and availability of equipment (Reference Baum and BoughtonBaum & Boughton, 2016). For example, will the presentation take place in a large, auditorium-like room or in a more intimate setting with the chairs arranged in a semi-circle? If the former, will a microphone be available? Is there a podium at the front of the room that might influence where you will stand? Given the dimensions of the room, where should the slide projector be positioned? Although it may be impossible to answers all such questions, it is a good idea to have a general sense of where the presentation will take place and who will be attending. It may also help to rearrange the seating, so that latecomers do not pose as a distraction (Reference Baum and BoughtonBaum & Boughton, 2016). Suggestions for preparing and conducting oral presentations are summarized in Table 12.3.

If the conference is virtual, it is critical to become familiar with the software or online platform well in advance of a synchronous event. For example, practicing with the camera and microphone and watching recordings of yourself will allow you to fine-tune the presentation and audio quality. Whether synchronous or asynchronous, there are a number of tips for optimizing video presentations, including how to position the camera, how to light the presenter, behaviors to include or avoid, and what to consider in terms of the background. Given the variability and subjectivity related to video presentation suggestions, we encourage the readers to research this extensive topic to personalize and optimize their virtual presentations.

5.5.1 Using Audiovisual Enhancements

One strategy for enhancing oral presentations is to use audio/visual stimuli, such as slides or props (e.g., Reference GrechGrech, 2019; Reference HoffHoff, 1988; Reference WilderWilder, 1994; see Table 12.4). When using visual enhancements, keep it simple, and clearly highlight important points using readable and consistent typeface (Reference Blome, Sondermann and AugustinBlome et al., 2017; Reference GrechGrech, 2018a). Information should be easily assimilated and reader-friendly, which generally means limiting text to a few phrases rather than complete sentences or paragraphs and using sufficiently large font sizes (e.g., 36- to 48-point font for titles and 24- to 36-point font for text). In addition, it is a good idea to keep titles to one line and bullets to no more than two lines of information. Additionally, color schemes should be relatively subdued and “professional” in appearance. For slide presentations, a dark background and light text might be easier to read. Utilize fonts without serifs (e.g., Arial) as opposed to fonts with serifs (e.g., Times New Roman; Reference Lefor and MaenoLefor & Maeno, 2016). Some conferences prefer a particular slide size, so it can be important to check with their requirements before designing the presentation. Additionally, depending on the room set up, it can be hard for the audience to see the bottom of slides, so it can be helpful to avoid placing text near the bottom of the slide. See Figure 12.2 for an example of a poor and good slide for an oral presentation.

Figure 12.2 Sample poor and good slides for an oral presentation.

Using audiovisual aids, such as video clips, also can contribute substantially to the overall quality and liveliness of a presentation. When incorporating video clips, pre-set volume levels and cue up the video in advance. We also recommend announcing the length of the video, dimming lights, and giving a concluding statement following the video.

Multimedia equipment and audiovisual aids have the potential to liven up even the most uninspiring presentations; however, caution against becoming overly dependent on any medium. Rather, be fully prepared to deliver a high-quality presentation without the use of enhancements. It also might be wise to prepare a solid “back-up plan” in case your original mode of presentation must be abandoned due to equipment failure or some other unforeseen circumstance. Back-up overheads, for example, might rescue a presenter who learns of equipment failures minutes before presenting.

When using slides, it is important to avoid “going overboard” with information (Reference Blome, Sondermann and AugustinBlome et al., 2017; Reference RegulaRegula, 2020). Many of us will present research with which we are intimately familiar and invested. With projects that are particularly near and dear (e.g., theses and dissertations), it may be tempting to tell the audience as much as possible. It is not necessary, for example, to describe the intricacies of the data collection procedure and present every pre-planned and post-hoc analysis, along with a multitude of significant and non-significant F-values and coefficients. Such information overload might bore audience members, who are unlikely to care about or remember so many fine-grained details. Instead of committing this common presentation blunder, present key findings in a bulleted, easy-to-read format rather than sentences. To avoid overcrowding of slides and overheads, you might remember the One × Six × Six rule of thumb: only ONE idea per visual, less than SIX bullets per visual, and less than SIX words per bullet (Reference RegulaRegula, 2020; see Figure 12.2).

The length of your oral presentation will vary depending on time restrictions, but there are some general guidelines for how to structure your presentation. Reference Zerwic, Grandfield, Kavanaugh, Berger, Graham and MershonZerwic et al. (2010) proposed a possible structure for research presentations, which should include a title, acknowledgments, background, specific aims, methods, results, conclusions, and future directions sections. Zerwic et al. also recommended how many slides should be allocated to each section with your title, acknowledgments, background, specific aims, conclusions, and future directions sections each taking up one slide with the majority of your slides focusing on the methods and results sections.

In short, remember and hold fast to this basic dictum: Audio/visual aids should be used to clarify and enhance (Reference CohenCohen, 1990; Reference GrechGrech, 2018a; Reference WilderWilder, 1994). Aids that detract, confuse, or bore one’s audience should not be used (soliciting feedback from colleagues and peers will assist in this selection process; Reference RegulaRegula, 2020). Overly colorful and ornate visuals or excessive slide animation, for example, might detract and distract from the content of the presentation (Reference Lefor and MaenoLefor & Maeno, 2016). Likewise, visual aids containing superfluous text might encourage audience members to read your slides rather than attend to your presentation. Keeping visuals simple also might prevent another presentation faux pas: reading verbatim from slides.

5.5.2 Using Humor and Examples

The effective use of humor might help “break the ice,” putting you and your audience at ease. There are many ways in which humor can be incorporated into presentations, such as through the use of stories, rich examples, jokes, and cartoons or comic strips. As with other aids, humor should be used in moderation and primarily to enhance a presentation (Reference CollinsCollins, 2004). When using humor, it is important to be natural and brief and to use non-offensive humor related to the subject matter.

Another strategy for spicing up presentations is through the use of stories and examples to illustrate relevant and important points (Reference Bekker and ClarkBekker & Clark, 2018). This can be accomplished in many ways, such as by providing practical and real-life examples or by painting a mental picture for the audience using colorful language (e.g., metaphors, analogies). Metaphorical language, for instance, might facilitate learning (Reference SkinnerSkinner, 1953) and help audience members to remember pertinent information. Similarly, amusing stories and anecdotes can be used to engage the audience and decrease the “impersonal feel” of more formal presentations. Regardless of whether or how humor is used, remember to do what “works” and feels right. Trying too hard to be amusing may come across as contrived and stilted, thus producing the opposite of the intended effect.

5.5.3 Attending To Other Speakers

When presenting research in a group forum (e.g., symposia), it may be beneficial to attend to other speakers, particularly those presenting before you. Being familiar with the content of preceding talks will help to reduce the amount of overlap and repetition between presentations (although some overlap and repetition might be desirable). You might, for example, describe the similarities and differences across research projects and explain how the current topic and findings relate to earlier presentations. The audience probably will appreciate such integration efforts and have a better understanding of the general topic area.

5.5.4 Answering Questions

Question and answer sessions are commonplace at conferences and provide excellent opportunities for clarifying ambiguous points and interacting with the audience. When addressing inquiries, it is crucial to maintain a professional, non-defensive demeanor (Reference Wellstead, Whitehurst, Gundogan and AghaWellstead et al., 2017). Treat every question as legitimate and well-intentioned, even if it comes across as an objection or insult. As a general rule, in large auditoriums it is good to repeat the question so that everyone in the room hears it. If a question is unclear or extremely complicated, it may be wise to pause and organize your thoughts before answering. If necessary, request clarification or ask the questioner to repeat or rephrase the question. It also may be helpful to anticipate and prepare for high-probability questions (Reference WilderWilder, 1994).

There are several types of difficult questions that can be anticipated, and it is important to know how to handle these situations (Table 12.1). Also, we recommend preparing for a non-responsive audience. If audience members do not initiate questions, some tactics for preventing long, uncomfortable silences are to pose commonly asked questions, reference earlier comments, or take an informal survey (e.g., “Please raise your hand if you work clinically with this population.”). Even if many questions are generated and lead to stimulating discussions, it is important to adhere to predetermined time limits. End on time and with a strong concluding statement.

Above all, avoid becoming defensive and critical, particularly when answering challenging questions. Irrespective of question quality or questioner intent, avoid making patronizing remarks or answering in a way that makes the questioner feel foolish or incompetent. Try to avoid falling into an exclusive dialogue with one person, which might cause other members of the audience to feel excluded or bored. If possible, offer to meet with the questioner and address their questions and concerns at the end of the talk. Another suggestion is to avoid engaging in mini-lectures by showcasing accumulated knowledge and expertise in a particular area. Instead, only provide information that is directly relevant to the specific question posed by the audience (Reference WilderWilder, 1994).