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Rebranding Cheapness for Colonial Consumption: The Strategies of Tan Kah Kee and Lee Kong Chian in Marketing British Malayan Canned Pineapples
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 May 2026
Abstract
In the early twentieth century, the Malayan pineapple was the cheapest but most consumed canned fruit in Britain, most of which was produced by local Chinese enterprises in British Malaya. Current historiography of the Malayan pineapple industry has highlighted its lack of automation and branding that made the canned pineapples low quality and therefore cheap; a consequence of colonial commodity production framework that prioritized rubber exports. A key assumption is that Britain’s high demand for Malayan pineapples was mainly driven by the harsh economic conditions during the Depression years. However, using previously unexamined colonial newspaper reports and archival sources on the Empire Marketing Board, this study sheds light on how two representatives of the pineapple industry—Tan Kah Kee and Lee Kong Chian—actively leveraged colonial ties and production cheapness to corner imperial markets. This study’s contribution is two-fold. First, it expands the Malayan pineapple industry’s current historiography by situating it within the broader debates on imperial marketing, commodity chains, and local entrepreneurship. By focusing on the marketing strategies which Chinese entrepreneurs devised within a colonial framework, it adds nuance to the literature on local entrepreneurship and the trajectories of a secondary commodity sector in British colonies. Second, it challenges the predominantly ethnically essentialist readings of Chinese business strategies under colonialism of Southeast Asia, by demonstrating how intra-ethnic cooperation was not always effective in business modernization. In this case, leveraging colonial and imperial ties to navigate colonial logic in commodity trade and production was more useful, even though its success was transient.
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- © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Business History Conference
References
Bibliography of Works Cited
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Fioratta, Susanna. “A World of Cheapness: Affordability, Shoddiness, and Second-Best Options in Guinea and China,” Economic Anthropology 6, no. 1 (2019): 86–97.10.1002/sea2.12133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frost, Adam K. “Reframing Chinese Business History,” Business History Review 96, no. 2 (2022): 245–287.10.1017/S0007680521000477CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giacomin, Valeria. “The Emergence of an Export Cluster: Traders and Palm Oil in Early Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia,” Enterprise & Society 19, no. 2 (2018): 272–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goh, Jeremy, and We, Koh Keng. “Industrialisation and Chinese Big Business in Colonial Singapore, Malaya, and China: The Transnational Enterprises of Lim Peng Siang (1904–1941),” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 54, no. 1 (2023): 89–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, Edmund Terence, and Hsiao, Hsin-Huang Michael. “Introduction,” in Chinese Business in Southeast Asia, ed. Gomez, Edmund Terence and Hsiao, Hsin-Huang Michael. London: Routledge, 2004, 1–37.Google Scholar
Hawkins, Richard A. “The Pineapple Canning Industry During the World Depression of the 1930s,” Business History 31, no. 4 (1989): 48–66.10.1080/00076798900000084CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, David M., and Velkar, Aashish. “Storm in a Teacup: Empire Products, Blended Teas, and Origin Marking Debates in 1920s Britain,” Business History 67, no. 4 (2025): 1141–1164.10.1080/00076791.2024.2313519CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hisasue, Ryoichi. “Chinese Banking Business in Singapore: Background and Development in the First Half of the Twentieth Century,” in Regional Routes, Regional Roots? Cross-Border Patterns of Human Mobility in Eurasia. Sapporo: Slavic-Eurasian Research Center, Hokkaido University, 2014, 13–21.Google Scholar
Huang, Jianli. “Shifting Culture and Identity: Three Portraits of Singapore Entrepreneur Lee Kong Chian (1893–1967),” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 82 (2009): 71–100.Google Scholar
Huff, W. G. “Sharecroppers, Risk, Management, and Chinese Estate Rubber Development in Interwar British Malaya,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 40, no. 4 (1992): 743–773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huff, W. G. “Capital Markets, Sharecropping and Contestability: Singapore Chinese in the Interwar British Malayan Estate Rubber and Pineapple Industries,” in Local Suppliers of Credit in the Third World, 1750–1960, ed. Austin, Gareth and Sugihara, Kaoru. London: Macmillan, 1993, 288–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huff, W. Gregg. "Boom-or-Bust Commodities and Industrialization in Pre–World War II Malaya." The Journal of Economic History 62, no. 4 (2002): 1074–1115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuo, Huei-Ying. “Rescuing Businesses through Transnationalism: Embedded Chinese Enterprise and Nationalist Activities in Singapore in the 1930s Great Depression,” Enterprise & Society 7, no. 1 (2006): 98–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lian, Kwen Fee, and We, Koh Keng. “Chinese Enterprise in Colonial Malaya: The Case of Eu Tong Sen,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 35, no. 3 (2004): 431–452.Google Scholar
Linneweh, Bastian. “Global Trading Companies in the Commodity Chain of Rubber between 1890 and the 1920s,” Business History 65, no. 5 (2023): 863–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loh, Kah Seng. “Beyond Rubber Prices: Negotiating the Great Depression in Singapore,” South East Asia Research 14, no. 1 (2006): 5–31.Google Scholar
Loh, Wei Leng. “The Colonial State and Business: The Policy Environment in Malaya in the Interwar Years,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 33, no. 2 (2002): 243–256.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Robert C. “Some Firsts in Island Business and Government,” Hawaiian Journal of History 14 (1980): 80–109.Google Scholar
Spiekermann, Uwe. “Twentieth-Century Product Innovations in the German Food Industry,” Business History Review 83, no. 2 (2009): 291–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, Ian Y. H. “The Colonial Port as Contact Zone: Chinese Merchants and the Development of Godowns along Singapore River, 1827–1905,” Architectural Histories 8, no. 1 (2020): 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tumbe, Chinmay. “Recent Trends in the Business History of India,” Business History Review 93, no. 1 (2019): 153–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Helten, Jean-Jacques, and Jones, Geoffrey. “British Business in Malaysia and Singapore Since the 1870s,” in British Business in Asia since 1860, ed. Davenport-Hines, R. P. T. and Jones, Geoffrey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989, 157–188.Google Scholar
Yao, Shohei. “Transplanting the Pineapple Industry beyond the Former Japanese Imperial Sphere: Hawaii, Taiwan, and Okinawa,” Hakusan Review of Anthropology 21 (2018): 81–104.Google Scholar
Yeo, Michael. “A Liminal Commodity: Catch-Cropping, Chinese Capitalists, and the Colonial State in the Pineapple Industry of Singapore, 1900s–1930s,” in The Pineapple from Domestication to Commodification: Re-Presenting a Global Fruit, ed. Avery, Victoria and Calaresu, Melissa. London: British Academy, 2025, 231–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morning Tribune
Google Scholar
Nanyang Siang Pau
Google Scholar
The Malaya Tribune
Google Scholar
Singapore Post
Google Scholar
Straits Times Annual
Google Scholar
Singapore Tribune
Google Scholar
The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser
Google Scholar
The Straits Budget
Google Scholar
The Straits Times
Google Scholar
Lloyd Papers. M1979. Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London.Google Scholar
Singapore High Commissioner’s Office. “Memorandum of the Pineapple Canning Industry.” HCO 882/37. Arkib Negara Malaysia.Google Scholar
Tallents Papers. M1979. Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London.Google Scholar
Birgfeld, Clarence. Fruit Canners of the World. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1939.Google Scholar
Courtenay, C. H. “The Reconstruction of the Malayan Canned Pineapple Industry,” Malayan Agricultural Journal 30 (1947): 183–191.Google Scholar
Department of Agriculture, Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States. The Malayan Agriculture Handbook. Kuala Lumpur: Huxley, Palmer, 1922.Google Scholar
Department of Overseas Trade. A Review of the Trade of British Malaya. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1928.Google Scholar
Department of Overseas Trade. Economic Conditions in British Malaya. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1931.Google Scholar
Department of Overseas Trade. Economic Conditions in British Malaya. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1934.Google Scholar
Figart, David M. The Plantation Rubber Industry in the Middle East: Crude Rubber Survey. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1925.Google Scholar
Grist, D.H. “The Malayan Pineapple Industry.” The Malayan Agricultural Journal XVIII no. 2 (February 1930): 188–191.Google Scholar
Shriver, J. Alexis. Pineapple-Canning Industry of the World. Washington, DC: United States Department of Commerce, 1915.Google Scholar
Straits Settlements Legislative Council. “Report of the Pineapple Conference, 31 August 1931.” In Proceedings of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements with Appendix, C217–C245. Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1931.Google Scholar
Kheng, Tan Kok. Interview by Lim How Seng. 14 December 1982–18 February 1984. Pioneers of Singapore Collection. National Archives of Singapore. Accession no. 000232.Google Scholar
“End of an era,” Asiaone, 12 August, 2023, accessed September 20, 2025, https://www.asiaone.com/lifestyle/end-era-singapores-lee-pineapple-shutter-johor-factory-after-92-yearsGoogle Scholar
Shah, Sultan Nazrin. “Historical GDP Accounts, Table 32,” Economic History of Malaya, accessed June 16, 2022, https://www.ehm.my/data/historical-gdp-accounts/data/details?eid=726EF747-4F9F-4FC5-BDA6-F90ED1E5E12DGoogle Scholar
U. S. Department of State. “Annexation of Hawaii, 1898,” U. S. Department of State website. Accessed September 22, 2025. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htmGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Felicity. Selling Britishness: Commodity Culture, the Dominions, and Empire. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Rajeswary Ampalavanar. Capital and Entrepreneurship in South-East Asia. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collingham, Lizzie. The Taste of Empire: How Britain’s Quest for Food Shaped the Modern World. New York: Basic Books, 2017.Google Scholar
Dobbin, Christine. Asian Entrepreneurial Minorities: Conjoint Communities in the Making of the World Economy, 1570–1940. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Drabble, John H. Rubber in Malaya, 1876–1922: The Genesis of the Industry. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1973.Google Scholar
Gardner, Leigh, and Roy, Tirthankar. The Economic History of Colonialism. Bristol: Bristol University Press, 2020.Google Scholar
Hawkins, Richard A. A Pacific Industry: The History of Pineapple Canning in Hawaii. London: I.B. Tauris, 2011. Reprint, London: Bloomsbury, 2020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huff, W. Gregg. The Economic Growth of Singapore: Trade and Development in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Jackson, James C. Planters and Speculators: Chinese and European Agricultural Enterprise in Malaya, 1786–1921. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1968.Google Scholar
Lees, Lynn Hollen. Planting Empire, Cultivating Subjects: British Malaya, 1786–1941. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okihiro, Gary Y. Pineapple Culture: A History of the Tropical and Temperate Zones. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redding, Gordon. The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, Anthony. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680. Vol. 2, Expansion and Crisis. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Song Ong Siang. One Hundred Years’ History of the Chinese in Singapore. Singapore, 1902. Reprint, Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1984.Google Scholar
Sunderland, David. British Economic Development in South East Asia, 1880–1939. Vol. 2. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2017.Google Scholar
Tai, Yuen. Chinese Capitalism in Colonial Malaya, 1900–1941. Bangi: Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2013.Google Scholar
Tan, Pek Leng. Land to Till. Kuala Lumpur: Centre for Malaysian Chinese Studies, 2008.Google Scholar
Tate, Desmond John Muzaffar. The RGA History of the Plantation Industry in the Malay Peninsula. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Turnbull, Constance Mary. The Straits Settlements, 1826–1867: Indian Presidency to Crown Colony. London: Athlone Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Ward, A. H. C., Chu, Raymond W., and Salaff, Janet, eds. and trans. The Memoirs of Tan Kah Kee. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Weidenbaum, Murray L., and Hughes, Samuel. The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs Are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.Google Scholar
Wright, Arnold, and Cartwright, H. A.. Twentieth Century Impressions of British Malaya: Its History, People, Commerce, Industries, and Resources. London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain Publishing Company, 1908.Google Scholar
Wu, Xiao An. Chinese Business in the Making of a Malay State, 1882–1941. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.Google Scholar
Yong, C. F. Tan Kah-Kee: The Making of an Overseas Chinese Legend. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2014.Google Scholar
Austin, Gareth, Dávila, Carlos, and Jones, Geoffrey. “The Alternative Business History: Business in Emerging Markets,” Business History Review 91, no. 3 (2017): 537–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Felicity. “Bringing Another Empire Alive? The Empire Marketing Board and the Construction of Dominion Identity, 1926–1933,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 42, no. 1 (2014): 61–85.10.1080/03086534.2013.826456CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartholomew, Duane P., Hawkins, Richard A., and Lopez, Johnny A.. “Hawaii Pineapple: The Rise and Fall of an Industry,” HortScience 47, no. 10 (2012): 1390–1398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Constantine, Stephen. “The Buy British Campaign of 1931,” European Journal of Marketing 21, no. 4 (1987): 44–59.10.1108/EUM0000000004692CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cribb, Robert. “Political Structures and Chinese Business Connections: A Historical Perspective,” in Chinese Business Networks, ed. Chan, Kwok Bun. Singapore: Prentice Hall, 2000, 176–192.Google Scholar
Dick, Howard. “A Fresh Approach to Southeast Asian History,” in The Rise and Fall of Revenue Farming: Business Elites and the Emergence of the Modern State in Southeast Asia, edited by Dick, Howard and Butcher, John. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1993, 3–18.10.1007/978-1-349-22877-5_1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drabble, John H. “Investment in the Rubber Industry in Malaya c. 1900–1922,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 3, no. 2 (1972): 247–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drabble, John H., and Drake, Peter Joseph. “The British Agency Houses in Malaysia: Survival in a Changing World,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 12, no. 2 (1981): 297–328.10.1017/S0022463400009899CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fioratta, Susanna. “A World of Cheapness: Affordability, Shoddiness, and Second-Best Options in Guinea and China,” Economic Anthropology 6, no. 1 (2019): 86–97.10.1002/sea2.12133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frost, Adam K. “Reframing Chinese Business History,” Business History Review 96, no. 2 (2022): 245–287.10.1017/S0007680521000477CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giacomin, Valeria. “The Emergence of an Export Cluster: Traders and Palm Oil in Early Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia,” Enterprise & Society 19, no. 2 (2018): 272–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goh, Jeremy, and We, Koh Keng. “Industrialisation and Chinese Big Business in Colonial Singapore, Malaya, and China: The Transnational Enterprises of Lim Peng Siang (1904–1941),” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 54, no. 1 (2023): 89–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, Edmund Terence, and Hsiao, Hsin-Huang Michael. “Introduction,” in Chinese Business in Southeast Asia, ed. Gomez, Edmund Terence and Hsiao, Hsin-Huang Michael. London: Routledge, 2004, 1–37.Google Scholar
Hawkins, Richard A. “The Pineapple Canning Industry During the World Depression of the 1930s,” Business History 31, no. 4 (1989): 48–66.10.1080/00076798900000084CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, David M., and Velkar, Aashish. “Storm in a Teacup: Empire Products, Blended Teas, and Origin Marking Debates in 1920s Britain,” Business History 67, no. 4 (2025): 1141–1164.10.1080/00076791.2024.2313519CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hisasue, Ryoichi. “Chinese Banking Business in Singapore: Background and Development in the First Half of the Twentieth Century,” in Regional Routes, Regional Roots? Cross-Border Patterns of Human Mobility in Eurasia. Sapporo: Slavic-Eurasian Research Center, Hokkaido University, 2014, 13–21.Google Scholar
Huang, Jianli. “Shifting Culture and Identity: Three Portraits of Singapore Entrepreneur Lee Kong Chian (1893–1967),” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 82 (2009): 71–100.Google Scholar
Huff, W. G. “Sharecroppers, Risk, Management, and Chinese Estate Rubber Development in Interwar British Malaya,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 40, no. 4 (1992): 743–773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huff, W. G. “Capital Markets, Sharecropping and Contestability: Singapore Chinese in the Interwar British Malayan Estate Rubber and Pineapple Industries,” in Local Suppliers of Credit in the Third World, 1750–1960, ed. Austin, Gareth and Sugihara, Kaoru. London: Macmillan, 1993, 288–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huff, W. Gregg. "Boom-or-Bust Commodities and Industrialization in Pre–World War II Malaya." The Journal of Economic History 62, no. 4 (2002): 1074–1115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuo, Huei-Ying. “Rescuing Businesses through Transnationalism: Embedded Chinese Enterprise and Nationalist Activities in Singapore in the 1930s Great Depression,” Enterprise & Society 7, no. 1 (2006): 98–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lian, Kwen Fee, and We, Koh Keng. “Chinese Enterprise in Colonial Malaya: The Case of Eu Tong Sen,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 35, no. 3 (2004): 431–452.Google Scholar
Linneweh, Bastian. “Global Trading Companies in the Commodity Chain of Rubber between 1890 and the 1920s,” Business History 65, no. 5 (2023): 863–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loh, Kah Seng. “Beyond Rubber Prices: Negotiating the Great Depression in Singapore,” South East Asia Research 14, no. 1 (2006): 5–31.Google Scholar
Loh, Wei Leng. “The Colonial State and Business: The Policy Environment in Malaya in the Interwar Years,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 33, no. 2 (2002): 243–256.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Robert C. “Some Firsts in Island Business and Government,” Hawaiian Journal of History 14 (1980): 80–109.Google Scholar
Spiekermann, Uwe. “Twentieth-Century Product Innovations in the German Food Industry,” Business History Review 83, no. 2 (2009): 291–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, Ian Y. H. “The Colonial Port as Contact Zone: Chinese Merchants and the Development of Godowns along Singapore River, 1827–1905,” Architectural Histories 8, no. 1 (2020): 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tumbe, Chinmay. “Recent Trends in the Business History of India,” Business History Review 93, no. 1 (2019): 153–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Helten, Jean-Jacques, and Jones, Geoffrey. “British Business in Malaysia and Singapore Since the 1870s,” in British Business in Asia since 1860, ed. Davenport-Hines, R. P. T. and Jones, Geoffrey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989, 157–188.Google Scholar
Yao, Shohei. “Transplanting the Pineapple Industry beyond the Former Japanese Imperial Sphere: Hawaii, Taiwan, and Okinawa,” Hakusan Review of Anthropology 21 (2018): 81–104.Google Scholar
Yeo, Michael. “A Liminal Commodity: Catch-Cropping, Chinese Capitalists, and the Colonial State in the Pineapple Industry of Singapore, 1900s–1930s,” in The Pineapple from Domestication to Commodification: Re-Presenting a Global Fruit, ed. Avery, Victoria and Calaresu, Melissa. London: British Academy, 2025, 231–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morning Tribune
Google Scholar
Nanyang Siang Pau
Google Scholar
The Malaya Tribune
Google Scholar
Singapore Post
Google Scholar
Straits Times Annual
Google Scholar
Singapore Tribune
Google Scholar
The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser
Google Scholar
The Straits Budget
Google Scholar
The Straits Times
Google Scholar
Lloyd Papers. M1979. Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London.Google Scholar
Singapore High Commissioner’s Office. “Memorandum of the Pineapple Canning Industry.” HCO 882/37. Arkib Negara Malaysia.Google Scholar
Tallents Papers. M1979. Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London.Google Scholar
Birgfeld, Clarence. Fruit Canners of the World. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1939.Google Scholar
Courtenay, C. H. “The Reconstruction of the Malayan Canned Pineapple Industry,” Malayan Agricultural Journal 30 (1947): 183–191.Google Scholar
Department of Agriculture, Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States. The Malayan Agriculture Handbook. Kuala Lumpur: Huxley, Palmer, 1922.Google Scholar
Department of Overseas Trade. A Review of the Trade of British Malaya. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1928.Google Scholar
Department of Overseas Trade. Economic Conditions in British Malaya. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1931.Google Scholar
Department of Overseas Trade. Economic Conditions in British Malaya. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1934.Google Scholar
Figart, David M. The Plantation Rubber Industry in the Middle East: Crude Rubber Survey. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1925.Google Scholar
Grist, D.H. “The Malayan Pineapple Industry.” The Malayan Agricultural Journal XVIII no. 2 (February 1930): 188–191.Google Scholar
Shriver, J. Alexis. Pineapple-Canning Industry of the World. Washington, DC: United States Department of Commerce, 1915.Google Scholar
Straits Settlements Legislative Council. “Report of the Pineapple Conference, 31 August 1931.” In Proceedings of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements with Appendix, C217–C245. Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1931.Google Scholar
Kheng, Tan Kok. Interview by Lim How Seng. 14 December 1982–18 February 1984. Pioneers of Singapore Collection. National Archives of Singapore. Accession no. 000232.Google Scholar
“End of an era,” Asiaone, 12 August, 2023, accessed September 20, 2025, https://www.asiaone.com/lifestyle/end-era-singapores-lee-pineapple-shutter-johor-factory-after-92-yearsGoogle Scholar
Shah, Sultan Nazrin. “Historical GDP Accounts, Table 32,” Economic History of Malaya, accessed June 16, 2022, https://www.ehm.my/data/historical-gdp-accounts/data/details?eid=726EF747-4F9F-4FC5-BDA6-F90ED1E5E12DGoogle Scholar
U. S. Department of State. “Annexation of Hawaii, 1898,” U. S. Department of State website. Accessed September 22, 2025. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htmGoogle Scholar