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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 March 2026

Edited by
Anjanette Raymond ,
Scott J. Shackelford ,
Jessica Steinberg  and
Michael Mattioli
Anjanette Raymond
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Bloomington
Scott J. Shackelford
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Bloomington
Jessica Steinberg
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Bloomington
Michael Mattioli
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Bloomington

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The Environmental Knowledge Commons
Cases and Lessons for Knowledge Sharing
 , pp. 245 - 252
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2026
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NC
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

Page numbers followed “n” denote footnotes. Page numbers in italics refers to figures/tables.

Aagaard, Todd, 25–56
Abrams v. United States, 72
action arenas, 87–88, 138
action situation, 87, 92–93, 98–99
actors, 87, 98, 138
adaptation, need for, 203
adaptive authority, 182
agricultural runoff pollution, 65
Alshoubaki, Wa’ed, 102–120
Alston, E., 74
Alvarez, Aubrey, 58, 59–60
analyzed information, 151
anonymous crowding (congestion) problem, 33, 37
anticommons, tragedy of the, 124–125
antimicrobial effectiveness (AME), 55–56
antimicrobial resistance (AMR), 55–56
Areas of Concern (AOC), 83
“Areopagitica” (Milton), 71
artifacts, 89
Assessment Reports (IPCC), 191–192, 196
attributes frame, 15, 16
authority, constituted versus adaptive, 182
back casting, 119
Barry, Liz, 18
Beck, S., 196
Beckwith, R., 10, 14
benefit-cost analysis, 89–91
Biochar Now LLC, 67, 75
blockchain networks, 74
Bloom, Greg, 9–24
boundary objects, 196
Brown, R. R., 86
built environments, 48–51
capacity building, 159, 161, 205
carbon, 60–61, 63
carbon data cycle, 63
CARE (collective benefit, authority to control, responsibility, and ethics) Principles, 15, 22n2
centrally managed commons, 190
Cesari, Laetitia, 123–145
CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research), 107
Charter on Space and Major Disasters, 152
CILDAS (Climate Induced Loss and Damage Agriculture Stress) index, 110–111, 117
civic epistemology, 186
Clean Water Act, 82, 85
climate change, 62–63, 155–156
climate change-induced loss and damage, 103–106, 118–120. See also trade-off intensity (TI)
climate financing, 102–103
Climate Induced Loss and Damage Agriculture Stress (CILDAS) index, 110–111, 117
Coase, Ronald H., 66
Cole, D. H., 195
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 153–155
commons, 2, 25n1, 31, 61, 146–147, 179
“Commons at the Intersection of Peer Production, Citizen Science, and Big Data” (Madison), 180–181
community of practice, 187
concordance and consent, 22
congestion, 48–49, 50
congestion (anonymous crowding) problem, 33, 37
constraints, 204–205
Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research (CGIAR), 107
Contreras, Jorge L., 165–177
cooperative management of environmental resources, 104n3
country readiness (preparedness), 103
cross-crowding, 39–40
customs, 32n13
data, 9–11, 129–132, 151. See also digital resource boundaries
Data Strategy (UN), 157
datashed framework, 10
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 187
DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion) value statements, 15–16
democratic writing, of value statements, 21–23
democratization, 13–14
descriptive baseline knowledge, 26
descriptive knowledge, requisite, 44
design principles, for commons, 28n6, 31–32, 34–35
detention (peak flow reduction), 84
Detroit Water and Sewerage Department (DWSD), 83, 96–97, 98
Development Programme Geographic Information System and Satellite Imagery Team, 156
digital data, 9–11. See also value statements
digital networked environments, 54–55
digital resource boundaries, 9–11. See also value statements
dilemmas, 19–20. See also environmental commons dilemmas
Disasters Charter, 152
diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) value statements, 15–16
Doran, Patrick J., 81–101
drainage charge, 83–84, 92, 97, 99–101
Draper, Chris, 57–77
Duggan, Mike, 83
durability of knowledge, 183–184
DWSD (Detroit Water and Sewerage Department), 83, 96–97, 98
Earth Observation Toolkit for Sustainable Cities and Human Settlements, 157
Eat Greater Des Moines (EGDM), 57–60, 66
Eaves, D., 14, 15, 16
EcoPatent Commons, 167–168, 170–172, 176
EDI (evidentiary document identifier), 68
Edwards, P. N., 188
Eisenberg, Rebecca, 127
ENERGY STAR program, 74–75
environmental changes, 119–120. See also climate change
environmental commons, 2, 25n2. See also environmental knowledge commons
environmental commons dilemmas. See also shared grazing pasture allegory
built environment examples, 48–51
forest management, 45–48
importance of knowledge commons, 36–37
requisite knowledge for, 43–45, 44
environmental knowledge commons
climate change-induced loss and damage. See climate change-induced loss and damage
defined, 2
digital resource boundaries, 9–11. See also value statements
ESG knowledge commons. See ESG (environmental, social, and governance) knowledge commons
expert knowledge commons. See expert knowledge commons
future directions, 207–209
and GKC framework. See GKC (Governing Knowledge Commons) framework
governance challenges and effective approaches, 203–206
green patent commons. See green patent commons
green stormwater infrastructure program. See GSI (green stormwater infrastructure) program
key characteristics, 199–203
knowledge commons–environmental commons relationship. See knowledge commons–environmental commons relationship
overview, 1–5
space knowledge commons. See space knowledge commons
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 66–67, 74–75
environmental systems, interconnectedness of, 200
environmental, social, and governance knowledge commons. See ESG (environmental, social, and governance) knowledge commons
ESG (environmental, social, and governance) knowledge commons, 57–77, 206
broader issues in, 60–61, 76–77
EGDM example, 57–60
Human Impact Unit (Hu), 64–66
as knowledge commons, 61–63
RACs. See RACs (regenerative authentication credits)
EU SST (Space Surveillance and Tracking System), 136, 139
European Union, 135–136
evaluation and monitoring, 21
evidentiary document identifier (EDI), 68
expert knowledge commons, 178–198, 206, 207
attributes of, 182–186
drawbacks and gaps, 188–189
features highlighted, 189–190
GKC case studies introduced, 180–181
GKC framework elements, 179–180
and IPCC. See IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
questions, 181–182
research on experts and expertise, 186–188
expert panels
in Jordan, 112–115, 118
predicting effect of rule changes, 116–117
experts, determining, 184–185
externalities, 41–42, 46, 49, 51
facilities, 89
faith communities, 94, 98, 100
Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR) Principles, 15
forest management, 45–48
Forest Service, 46–47, 200
Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), 155–156
frameworks, versus theories and models, 138
“Free and Responsible Press” (Hutchins Commission), 73
Friedman, B., 20
Frischmann, Brett M.
common sense commons, 189
commons versus non commons, 61
GKC project, 11–12
Governing Knowledge Commons, 14
knowledge–environmental commons relationship, 25–56
physical commons, 88
“University as Constructed Cultural Commons, The”, 180
functions frame, 15–16
Galaxy Zoo, 180–181, 182, 183, 184, 185
GCF (Green Climate Fund), 103n1
GEO (Group on Earth Observations), 158
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Centre for Health, 157
GI (green infrastructure), 82. See also GSI (green stormwater infrastructure) program
Gindis, D., 195
GIS (Geographic Information Systems) Centre for Health, 157
GKC (Governing Knowledge Commons) framework
action arenas, 87, 138
and community, 142
definition, 2
and environmental knowledge commons, 2–3
and expert knowledge commons. See also climate change-induced loss and damage
expertise case studies, 180–181
and IAD framework, 45, 138
overview, 3–5, 87, 138, 179–180
rules-in-use, 87–88, 138
and value statements, 11–12
Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) Programme, 156
global commons, 146
Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS), 158
Global Pulse, 158, 161
Global Technology Pool for Climate Change, 169
Glupker, Christian, 81–101
governance
across levels, 202–203
building robust, 51–54
challenges and effective approaches, 203–206
of climate change induced losses, 106
of commons generally, 25n1, 31–32
and ESG knowledge commons. See ESG (environmental, social, and governance) knowledge commons
and expert knowledge commons. See expert knowledge commons
and GKC framework. See GKC (Governing Knowledge Commons) framework
Hardin’s conflation with resource, 30–31
and institutional resilience, 120
and knowledge commons–environmental commons relationship. See knowledge commons–environmental commons relationship
knowledge commons as, 132–133
and space data sharing, 134
strategies, 205
and value statements, 16, 19, 21, 205
Governing Knowledge Commons (Frischmann), 14
Governing Knowledge Commons framework. See GKC (Governing Knowledge Commons) framework
government regulation, 30, 31n10, 34n16
GreaseTrack compliance software, 75
Green Climate Fund (GCF), 103n1
Green Credit incentive program, 84, 85, 98
green infrastructure (GI), 82. See also GSI (green stormwater infrastructure) program
green patent commons, 165–177, 205
background, 165–167
challenges, 169–172
prior attempts to form, 167–169
recommendations, 173–177
green stormwater infrastructure program. See GSI (green stormwater infrastructure) program
green technology, 171
GreenXchange, 168, 170, 171, 175
Griesemer, J. R., 196
Grisot, M., 21
Group on Earth Observations (GEO), 158
GSI (green stormwater infrastructure) program, 81–101, 206
conclusions, 99–101
institutional analysis of knowledge commons, 96–99
institutional analysis of physical commons, 91–96
institutional and economic perspectives, 85–87
methods/case study design, 87–91
policy context, 82–85
problems with stormwater, 81–82
Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities (Commission on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space), 153–155
Gurstein, Michael, 14
Gustafsson, K. M., 188
Haapaniemi, Sam, 81–101
Haas, P. M., 186, 188
Hall, B. H., 172
Hardin, Garrett, 18, 29–31, 41, 126
Harriden, K., 86
Harrington, Andrea J., 146–161
Heller, Michael, 126–127
Helmers, C., 172
Hess, Charlotte, 2, 89
heterogeneity, 38n24
heterogeneous congestion, 50
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 72
homogeneous congestion, 50
Human Impact Unit (Hu), 64–66
Hutchins Commission, 73
IAD (Institutional Analysis and Development) framework
and climate change-induced loss and damage, 104–105
and GKC framework, 2, 11, 87, 138
and GSI practices, 86
and knowledge commons, 28n6
McGinnis on, 44
IBM, 167
ideas, 89
IFRI (International Forestry Resources and Institutions) research project, 105–106
incentives, 35–36
Institutional Analysis and Development framework. See IAD (Institutional Analysis and Development) framework
institutional buffers, 53
intellectual property measures, 127
interaction effects (interdependencies), 39–41, 46, 49
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). See IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
International Asteroid Warning Network, 156
International Forestry Resources and Institutions (IFRI) research project, 105–106
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 134–135
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 16–17
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 190–198
establishment and role, 178
history, 191–193
as model expert knowledge commons, 193–198
number of scientists, 1
Isely, Elaine, 81–101
Isely, Paul, 81–101
ITU (International Telecommunication Union), 134–135
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), 16–17
Jasanoff, S., 186
Johns, Carolyn M., 86
“Kind of Solution a Smart City Is, The” (Madison), 181
knowledge
cost of generating, 52
versus data, 129–132
descriptive baseline knowledge, 26
durability of, 183–184
managerial knowledge, 26
required by commons governance, 30
requirements, 43n30
shared knowledge. See shared knowledge
tacit knowledge, 183
translated knowledge, 185–186
and values, 11
knowledge commons, 2, 104–105, 146. See also environmental knowledge commons
Knowledge Commons framework. See GKC (Governing Knowledge Commons) framework
knowledge commons social dilemmas, 193
knowledge commons–environmental commons relationship, 25–56, 205
and adjacent action situations, 44–45
bidirectionality, 26–27
building robust commons governance, 51–54
environmental commons dilemmas. See environmental commons dilemmas
and ESG governance, 61–63
future directions, 54–56
insights gained by studying, 27–28
relevance of knowledge commons, 25–26
knowledge requirements, 43n30
Kojima, Yu, 102–120
Kuhn, Thomas, 186
Kurian, Mathew, 102–120
landscaping exercises, 174–175
laws and regulations, 204
Levin, P., 10
living rooms, 50–52
Long-Term Sustainability (LTS) Guidelines, 153–155
Low Carbon Patent Pledge (LCPP), 168
MacDonald, D. H., 86
Madison, Michael J.
“University as Constructed Cultural Commons, The”, 180
“Commons at the Intersection of Peer Production, Citizen Science, and Big Data”, 180–181
commons versus non commons, 61
expert knowledge commons, 178–198, 207
on knowledge commons research, 132
“Republic of Letters and the Origins of Scientific Knowledge Commons, The”, 181
Mahony, M., 196
Maitra, 169
managerial knowledge, 26
Mansell, Robin, 181
Marcuse, Herbert, 73
marketplace of ideas theory, 72–73
Mattioli, M., 171
Mazzucato, M., 14, 15, 16
McGinnis, Michael, 44–45
McKean, M. A., 53
McKinsey open data report, 13
Mekala, G. D., 86
Merton, Robert, 186
Mill, John Stuart, 72, 73
Miller, C. A., 188
Milton, John, 71
Mission, Vision, and Values (MVV), 12. See also value statements
Modeling the Business Case for Green Stormwater Infrastructure in Detroit, Michigan (Isely), 89
models, versus theories and frameworks, 138
monitoring and evaluation, 21
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits, 82–83
National Research Council, 81, 82
natural resource commons. See environmental commons dilemmas
Nature Conservancy, The, 89, 94, 100
negative externalities, 41–42, 49
Nelson, R. R., 181
nonrivalrous consumption, 29n7
Nordman, Erik E., 81–101
normative information, 47
normative judgments, 26
normative knowledge, 19–20, 21, 24, 44. See also value statements
NPDES (National Pollution Discharge Elimination System) permits, 82–83
O’Reilly, J. L., 188, 193, 194
Obama administration, 13
OCP (Open Covid Pledge), 168, 175
“On Liberty” (Mill), 72
open access, 179
open access information, 135
Open Covid Pledge (OCP), 168, 175
openness, 13–14, 15, 20–21, 203
Ostrom, Elinor. See also IAD (Institutional Analysis and Development) framework
action arena described by, 87–88
boundaries, 32n12
and “commons” term, 179
design principles, 27, 28n6, 31–32, 34–35
and digital resources, 10
frameworks, theories, and models, 138
Hardin’s frame challenged by, 30–31
IFRI project, 105–106
Japanese villagers example, 53
knowledge commons described by, 89
optimism about drama of the commons, 116
polycentricity, 74
on prisoner’s dilemma, 34
rationality postulate reformulated by, 118
rules-in-form, 18
rules-in-use, 18, 32n12, 87
second principle, 20
on stability of the system, 53–54
third way offered by, 118
on trust, 76
and value statements, 22
Ostrom, Vincent, 74
Outer Space Treaty (1967), 143, 146–149, 150
Parmiggiani, E., 21
patent landscaping exercise, 174–175
patents, 140. See also green patent commons
patterns of interactions, 88, 99
PCSWMO (Post-Construction Stormwater Management Ordinance), 83–84
peak flow reduction (detention), 84
Polanyi, Michael, 186
policy implications, 205–206
political ecology, 103n2
polycentricity, 74–76, 185
positions, 87
positive externalities, 49
Post-Construction Stormwater Management Ordinance (PCSWMO), 83–84
prestige, 194–195
primary data, 151
principle statements, 12–13
principles, 15, 17
“Principles Governing IPCC Work”, 192
Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (UNGA), 149
prisoner’s dilemma, 34
private sector/private initiatives, 137–138, 139, 160, 201. See also green patent commons
“Problem of Social Cost, The” (Coase), 66
processed data, 151
progress of science, 183
public agencies, 46, 47–48, 204
public domain, 179
public health, 55–56
public information, and space data sharing, 134–135
Public Lab, 17–18
public lands managers, 47
public value, 14
purpose statements, 12
RAC Transfer Agreement (RTA), 68
RAC Value Definition (RVD), 68
RACs (regenerative authentication credits), 60, 66–71, 74–76
reciprocity, 105
Red List, 16–17
Redacted Evidentiary Documents, 67
Reddy, V. Ratna, 102–120
regenerative authentication credits (RACs), 60, 66–71, 74–76
regulation, government, 30, 31n10, 34n16
Remote Sensing Principles, 149–152, 160
renewable energy credits/certificates (RECs), RACs compared to, 68
“Republic of Letters and the Origins of Scientific Knowledge Commons, The” (Madison), 181
Republic of Letters, 182, 183, 184, 185
reputation, 105, 194–195
resilience, of socioecological systems, 102
Resolution 1962, 147
Resolution 40 (WMO), 152–153
resources, 10–11, 30–31, 138, 140, 188. See also digital data
retention (volume reduction), 84
roads, 48–50, 51
royalty-free standards, 167
RTA (RAC Transfer Agreement), 68
rule changes, predicting effects of, 116–118
rules-in-use, 87, 98, 138
RVD (RAC Value Definition), 68
Sacred Heart Church, 94, 98, 100
Sampat, B. N., 181
satellite operators, 128–129, 139
satellites, 127, 147
SCE (solar climate engineering) commons (proposed), 169
scope, 10, 12
scope of uses, 40
Secretary-General’s Data Strategy, 157
Securities and Exchange Commission, 62
shared grazing pasture allegory, 28–45
anonymous crowding problem, 33–34, 37
and design principles, 31, 34–35
external effects, 41–43
Hardin’s explanation, 29–31
heterogenous uses, 37–39
incentive issues, 35–36
interaction effects, 39–41
Ostrom on, 30–32
overview, 28–29
requisite knowledge, 43–45
and shared understandings, 32–33
shared knowledge. See also knowledge commons
codified/durable and tacit, 183
descriptive versus constitutive, 40
and Ostrom’s design principles, 35
prestige as, 195
and shared grazing pasture allegory, 31, 33n14
storage and transmission, 89
underrepresented in environmental commons scholarship, 31n11
size of problem (SOP), 64–65
smart cities, 14, 181, 183, 184, 185
smartness, 14
Snow, C. P., 187
SOAO (Statement of Ownership at Origin), 68
social technology, 181
soft law, 150
solar climate engineering (SCE) commons (proposed), 169
SOP (size of problem), 64–65
space data and space knowledge, 129–132
Space Data Association (SDA), 136–137
space knowledge commons, 123–145, 206. See also terrestrial environmental data
community, 142–144
data sharing among partners, 133–134
data sharing as essential, 132–133
GKC framework, 138–140
importance of, 123–125
public information, 134–135
space data and space knowledge, 129–132
space traffic management case study, 135–138
strategic, economic, and scientific considerations, 140–142
tragedy of the anticommons, 124–129, 144
Space Surveillance and Tracking System (EU SST), 136, 139
space traffic management (STM), 135–138
stability of the system, 53–54
stakeholders, 22–23, 46, 47–48, 200–202
Star, S. L., 196
Statement of Ownership at Origin (SOAO), 68
statements of purpose or scope, 12
stewardship, 14
STM (space traffic management), 135–138
stormwater. See GSI (green stormwater infrastructure) program
Strandburg, K. J., 61, 180
Strassberg, Valerie, 81–101
subtractable resources, 20
Sun, Simon, 57–77, 123–145
sustainability, 140–141, 144
system boundaries, 10
tacit knowledge, 183
Te Hiku Media, 17
Te Mana Raraunga network, 17
technology, role of, 204
terrestrial environmental data, 146–161
Disasters Charter, 152
LTS Guidelines, 153–155
opportunities, issues, and recommendations, 158–161
organizations with space data sharing intiatives, 156–158
Outer Space Treaty, 146–149
Remote Sensing Principles, 149–152
Resolution 40, 152–153
UN efforts regarding climate change, 155–156
UN-SPIDER, 152
Tesla Motors Pledge, 168–169
theories, versus frameworks and models, 138
Thorsby, J. S., 85
TI. See trade-off intensity (TI)
trade-off intensity (TI), 106–119
defined, 120
illuminating political ecology context through, 111–112
institutional mechanisms as crucial, 107–108
in Jordan, 112–115, 118
predicting effects of rule changes, 116–118
typologies of climate change-induced loss and damage stress, 108–111
tragedy of the anticommons, 124–129, 144
tragedy of the commons, 29. See also shared grazing pasture allegory
translated knowledge, 185–186, 195–197
transparency, 76
treaties, 204
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. See Outer Space Treaty (1967)
Trokt network, 70–71
trust, 76, 105
Trust, and Truth, 60–61
Truth, 60–61, 70–73
Truth Social, 73
Twisa, Sekela, 102–120
UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 153–155
UN Development Programme Geographic Information System and Satellite Imagery Team, 156
UN Geospatial, 157–158
UN Global Pulse, 158, 161
UN Global Service Centre (UNGSC), 158
UN Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), 156–157
UN Office on Drugs and Crime, 157
UN Remote Sensing Principles, 149–152
UN Satellite Centre (UNOSAT), 156
United Nations, 129, 155–156. See also IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
United Nations Platform for Space-Based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response (UN-SPIDER), 152
United Way, 57–60
universities, 180, 184
“University as Constructed Cultural Commons, The” (Madison, Frischmann, and Strandburg), 180
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 66–67, 83
US Securities and Exchange Commission, 62
usage tracking, 171–172
US–Canada Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, 83
user-managed commons, 190
value statements, 11–24
ambiguity and underspecification, 13–14
articulating values and principles, 14–16
as boundary object, 11
defined, 12–13
democratic writing of, 21–23
enforceability and prioritization, 20–21
examples, 16–18
and GKC framework, 11–12
group identity shaped by, 19
importance of, 18, 23–24
and monitoring and evaluation, 21
and normative knowledge, 19–20
resistance to, 18–19
Value-Sensitive Design, 20
Viars, Shanyn, 81–101
Vinsel, Lee, 24n4
virtual spaces, 54–55
vision statements, 12
volume reduction (retention), 84
Webber, J. L., 85
WIPO Green, 169, 171–172, 175
World Health Organization (WHO) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Centre for Health, 157
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 152–153
Xiang, J. Y., 172

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