1. In the ambit of that cultural history, I include intellectual history and the history of ideas as well as conceptual history (Begriffsgeschichte). As Koselleck Reference Koselleck and Schieder1986 argued, such a Begriffsgeschichte, tracing the historical usage and evolving semantics of societal and political concepts, constitutes an important interface between cultural and social history. Another such interface is the study of public opinion, which, more than being just an ambient condition like the weather, or one’s hormones, can exercise a nudging influence on state policies. As I show in Chapter 11, public opinion constitutes a point where culturally conceived and culturally platformed ideas and attitudes can exercise leverage on political developments.

2. In this approach I follow Anderson Reference Anderson2006, e.g. his identification of ‘print capitalism’ and far-flung readerships as a precondition for establishing ‘imagined communities’ at a translocal, nationwide level. An excellent analysis of the national role of the writer is Thiesse Reference Thiesse2019. For case studies on intellectuals and nation-building in various countries (neigbouring Russia), see Suny & Kennedy Reference Suny and Kennedy2001. I emphatically include ‘popular culture’, as per Edensor Reference Edensor2020.

3. The historical agency of objects has been advanced in the actor–network theory of Bruno Latour (Reference Latour2005). In addition, I take from Latour the crucial insight that agency should not be misinterpreted as intentionality. On the idea that texts in their capacity to inspire other texts are ‘procreative’, see Rigney Reference Rigney2012, esp. chapter 2, ‘Procreativity: Remediation and Rob Roy’.

4. Hroch Reference Hroch2009, chapter 6 (‘The Players: Speaking in the Name of the Nation’; summarizing his earlier research, Hroch Reference Hroch and Kocka1995), gives a fine-meshed grid depicting the social origin of nationally active university-educated German, Czech, Slovak, Norwegian, Finnish and Lithuanian intellectuals, ranging across nine social strata from peasants to large landowners and high officials. That social spread is differently distributed in the different areas examined. This may, as Hroch argues, have coloured the extent to which these intellectuals stressed social or economic issues in their social demands. How decisive these differerentiations are for determining the course of national movements as such is, however, open to some doubt, for various reasons. (1) The distribution is given in percentages, which means that the patterns for smaller national populations (Lithuanians) are given a massively overstated equivalence to those for larger ones (Germans). (2) These data all concern activists in, specifically, Hroch’s Phase B, which means precisely those who were, by his definition, involved in raising social demands. While this may throw interesting light on the distribution of conservatism or radicalism in national movements, or on the importance of cohorts such as country doctors or country clergymen, or (as Hroch suggests) on the wider mobilizing appeal of protagonists in different countries, it remains unclear what the applicability is for Phase A. The one insight that does stand from Hroch’s model is how great is the social spread of protagonists’ backgrounds, as we see represented in the nationally minded intelligentsia Europe-wide; this suggests that the elite/masses distinction did not play a determining role.

5. Bourdieu Reference Bourdieu1993 (on restricted vs. unrestricted cultural production). Studying both restricted and unrestricted cultural production allows me to take account of the ‘popular culture and everyday life’ addressed by Edensor Reference Edensor2020.

6. Bourdieu Reference Bourdieu1979 (on distinction and prestige), Rigney Reference Rigney2012 (on remediation), Erll & Rigney Reference Erll and Rigney2009 (on canonicity and remediation).

7. On complex systems, see, besides Latour Reference Latour2005, also Luhman Reference Luhman1984. Complexity (the systemic prominence of iterative and nesting input–output feedback loops) generates ‘autopoiesis’, the ability for systems to self-stabilize and become more than mere ‘output’ derived from underlying factors. On positing cultural history as, precisely, the history of complexity: Sirinelli Reference Sirinelli, Rioux and Sirinelli1997.

8. On habitus: Bourdieu Reference Bourdieu1980; more on this in Chapter 12.

9. Fremderfahrung: Dyserinck Reference Dyserinck and Mehnert2015, 43–47, Connor Reference Connor1967, also Connor Reference Connor1973 and Reference Connor1994. On the importance of Connor’s work in nationalism studies: the editorial introduction of Conversi Reference Conversi2002, 1–23.

10. The model was first proposed in Leerssen Reference Leerssen2006a and formed the basis of the material collected in ERNiE Reference Leerssen2022.

11. As one characteristic example of the reluctance among social historians to see culture in any other terms than as a mere emanation or indicator of socio-political patterns, see Haupt & Tacke Reference Haupt and Tacke1996. Their discussion of ‘Die Kultur des Nationalen’ (the culture of the nation) opens with a stricture that ‘Although cultural-historical questions have opened innovative fields for modern nationalism studies and may yield a greater political relevance, they do not render the social-historical analysis of the national phenomenon superfluous. On the contrary’ (255, my emphasis). The rest of the article reduces ‘the culture of the nation’ to a social and political analysis of groups and actors evincing a cultural interest. The work of Pierre Nora and Mona Ozouf is presented as an extension into ‘cultural anthropology’; the study of historical monuments (by the likes of Maurice Agulhon and Thomas Nipperdey) presents a possible slide towards mere iconography – unless analysed as to their social ‘Trägergruppen’ (carrier groups). Not a single publication from the disciplines of literary history, music history or art history is taken into account.

12. Here I follow John Hutchinson’s thoughtful discussion of cultural nationalism (which, to be sure, is not quite the same thing as the culture of nationalism or the cultural history of nationalism: Hutchinson Reference Hutchinson and Breuilly2013).

13. I take my cue from Wimmer & Schiller Reference Wimmer and Glick Schiller2002, since then also inspiringly applied to nationalism studies by Storm Reference Storm2024.

14. For the phase model: Hroch Reference Hroch1968. Hroch has since then elaborated and refined his theory in numerous other publications, notably Hroch Reference Hroch2015, with various articles collected in Hroch Reference Hroch2015. On the whole, the present book accords quite closely with European Nations (Hroch Reference Hroch2015), which enriches our understanding of the period with valuable and thoroughly researched socio-historical insights and examples and deeply informed discussions of the status quaestionis and the secondary literature. Because my approach is so deeply beholden to Hroch, I should specify the three points where this book takes up a different position from his.

The most superficial one is Hroch’s disapprobation of the term ‘nationalism’, which for him specifally denotes national chauvinism (‘an excessive worshipping of one’s own nation, connected with overvaluing it and placing it above other nations’, Hroch Reference Hroch2015), and which he therefore does not wish to see heedlessly applied to the protagonists of national movements. While chauvinism certainly is a frequent component of nationalism, in the English-speaking world the -ism in ‘nationalism’ (analogous to that in ‘liberalism’, ‘socialism’ or ‘feminism’) merely denotes the ideology or set of ideals driving a social or political movement.

Secondly, Hroch (like Smith Reference Smith1978) has shown himself very critical of diffusionist models, which I here unashamedly espouse. Cultural/communicative diffusion is particularly important for the understanding of Phase A, while most of Hroch’s attention is focused on Phases B and C. And pace Hroch, diffusion models need not presuppose a ‘ground zero’ from where the diffusion process originates. My ‘ground zero’, such as it is, I locate in the political friction zones of destabilized European states and empires around 1800, and in the anti-Napoleonic intelligentsia’s response to accelerated (largely Napoleonic) modernization. I am mindful of the many political, institutional and intellectual factors that converged during this period to precipitate the rise of Romantic historicism and Romantic nationalism.

Thirdly, Hroch as a social historian situates historical developments in the context of state-governed societies, which means that it is important for him to distinguish typologically between established and aspirational states, nations and ‘non-dominant ethnic groups’, and regions with or without an indigenous elite. To me, as a cultural and intellectual historian, such distinctions are of less importance, since all these polities and societies, irrespective of their undeniable socio-political differences, were affected by the culture of nationalism. More on this in the conclusion to this book.

15. Hroch Reference Hroch1968, Reference Huig2005, Thiesse Reference Thiesse1999; for ‘cultural transfer’: Espagne & Werner Reference Espagne and Werner1990, Reference Espagne and Werner1994, Reference Espagne and Dmitrieva1996, Breuilly Reference Breuilly2013, Reference Breuilly, Baylis, Smith and Owens2020, Dyserinck Reference Dyserinck, Dyserinck and Syndram1988. A pioneering transnational compilation of relevant data was Pearson Reference Pearson1994.

16. The reconfiguration of the historian’s working field and the availability of archivally ordered data during the Sattelzeit is well illustrated in Peter Burke’s long-term history of knowledge production, Burke Reference Burke2012. During the presentation of that book at the University of Göttingen in 2012, Burke described how as a result of post-1800 changes the emerging discipline of history morphed into ‘the archive-based study of changes imposed from above’.

17. This was cogently argued, against Anthony Smith, by Connor Reference Connor2004.

18. The ‘invention of tradition’ concept (Hobsbawm & Ranger Reference Hobsbawm and Ranger1983) emerged around the same time as the lieux de mémoire approach (see Nora Reference Nora1997), soon followed by the formalization of memory studies (see Jan Assmann Reference Assmann1992, Aleida Assmann Reference Assmann1999). On Romantic historicism and medievalism as intellectual enablers of national identity cultivation: Bák, Geary & Klaniczay Reference Bak, Geary and Klaniczay2014, Geary Reference Geary2002, Thiesse Reference Thiesse1999.

19. On cultural memory studies: Rigney Reference Rigney2001, Reference Rigney2012.

20. Deutsch Reference Deutsch1969: 3.

21. Ethno-symbolism: Smith Reference Smith, Delanty and Kumar2006, Reference Smith, Delanty and Kumar2009. Irish cultural nationalism: Hutchinson Reference Hutchinson1987. Groupism: Brubaker Reference Brubaker2004a. Dyserinck’s original: ‘im Raum der Geschichte vorübergehend verwirklichte Denkmodelle’, Dyserinck Reference Dyserinck and Mehnert2015, 25.

22. Hutchinson Reference Hutchinson and Breuilly2013.

23. Brubaker Reference Brubaker1996, 16.

24. This is not meant to supplant other definitions, only to give them a practical application in the context of this book’s scope.

25. Leerssen Reference Leerssen2013, ERNiE Reference Leerssen2022.

26. Further elaborated in Leerssen Reference Leerssen2018 and ERNiE Reference Leerssen2022. It is my contention that the ‘circulation of ideas’ within this polygon was markedly more dense and intense than in contacts with the world outside.

27. Schivelbusch Reference Schivelbusch2004.

28. Connor Reference Connor1967.

29. These shifting states recall the axis of intensity as identified by Jonathan Hearn (Reference Hearn2006), who sees nation-awareness as ranging from a mere ‘feeling’ by way of ‘identity’ and ‘ideology’ to ‘social movement’. Breuer Reference Breuer2005 distinguishes between Weltanschauung (world-view), Gesinnung (mindset, attitude) and Ideologie. To distinguish sharply between these semantic clouds is problematic, but in all cases a sliding scale of ideological intensification is implied, which tallies with the stages of political/activist intensification registered by Hroch in his phase model. To clarify the terms: for ‘feeling’, see the useful examples in François Reference François1995. I myself have distinguished between ‘national thought’ (much in the sense as Breuer uses ‘Nationalbewußtsein’) and its more intensified, ideologically programmatic manifestation ‘nationalism’ (Leerssen Reference Leerssen2018). The notion of ‘identity’, let alone ‘national identity’, is notoriously vexed; in this book, I use it in the imagological sense (‘a consciously experienced national self-image’: Beller & Leerssen Reference Beller and Leerssen2007, see under ‘Identity/alterity’). I use ‘ideology’ in the sense defined by Gérard Genette as ‘a body of tenets and prejudices constituting both a world-view and a value system’ (Genette Reference Genette1969, 73).

1. On the monument: Alings Reference Alings1996. Quotation: Hitler Reference Hitler1939 (1925–1927): 213–214, with thanks to Paul Stevens for alerting me to it. On war enthusiasm: generally Konrad Reference Konrad, Lakitsch, Reitmair-Juárez and Seidel2016 and Kieft Reference Kieft2015, Silbey Reference Silbey2005 (Britain), Verhey Reference Verhey2000, Bruendel Reference Bruendel2003, 70, Hoeres Reference Hoeres2004 (Germany).

2. On that tradition from Arndt into the twentieth century: Leerssen Reference Leerssen2017a. Arndt’s seminal text is online in English translation at ERNiE (e-rn.ie/arndtrhine), as are the poems by Schneckenburger and Hoffmann von Fallersleben.

3. Langemarck: Unruh Reference Unruh1986, Dithmar Reference Dithmar1992, Krumeich Reference Krumeich, François and Schulze2001.

4. Casablanca: Harmetz Reference Harmetz2002.

5. The Michelet quotations are online at e-rn.ie/micheletmarseillaise. On Michelet and his idealization of history as the self-realization of France: Rigney Reference Rigney1990. On ‘La Marseillaise’: Vovelle Reference Vovelle1997, Richard Reference Richardn.d.

6. On the making of Olivier’s Henry V: Aldgate & Richards Reference Aldgate and Richards2007.

7. Nevsky dedications: e-rn.ie/nevsky. Eisenstein and the film: Goodwin Reference Goodwin1993. Alexander Nevsky as a memory figure in Russian history: Schenk Reference Schenk2004.

8. Rousseau Reference Rousseau1762 Livre IV cap. 8: ‘De la religion civile’. Burke Reference Burke1790 paragraphs 154, 158, 165.

9. Sparta as Rousseauesque ideal: Shklar Reference Shklar1966; for Robespierre; Cartledge Reference Cartledge2002; generally Rawson Reference Rawson1969. Cult of personalilty: Dikötter Reference Dikötter2020.

10. Hegel Reference Hegel1857, Introduction (Sibree’s translation). The 1837 German edition (by Gans) did not include Hegel’s Introduction; Sibree follows the 1840 edition (by Karl Hegel). Hegel’s life and thought are masterfully outlined by Pinkard Reference Pinkard2000.

11. On Carlyle’s views on history: Rigney Reference Rigney1990, Reference Rigney2001.

12. Carlyle Reference Carlyle1841, chapter 3.

13. See Leerssen Reference Leerssen2006b and Reference Leerssen2019a.

14. On ‘cultural saints’: Dović & Helgason Reference Dović and Helgason2016. The iconography on banknotes and statues is collected at e-rn.ie/currency.

15. Krumeich Reference Krumeich1989, Winock Reference Winock1997.

16. ‘Merkmale der charismatischen Herrschaft’, in Weber Reference Weber1922 section 1 chapter 3 para 10. Weber had floated the idea previously in the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitiek and in his Politik als Beruf. For a conceptual history, see Derman Reference Derman2011. The passages quoted here follow the English translation by A. M. Henderson & Talcott Parsons (Weber Reference Weber1924).

17. E.g. Lepsius Reference Lepsius, Graumann and Moscovici1986; Breuer Reference Breuer2011, esp. chapter 2 (‘Charismatische Herrschaft’), 25–79. Some historians have argued that Bismarck may have been a prototype; but the great cult of personality surrounding Bismarck flourished only after his resignation as chancellor in 1890, and rested not on his authority as a statesman (he had become increasingly unpopular in that capacity) but on his reputation as the architect of the new Reich. For a map of more than 250 Bismarck monuments and Bismarck towers erected between 1869 and 1934 from Königsberg to Metz and from Kiel to Konstanz, see e-rn.ie/bismarck. Only ten of these predate 1891.

18. Breuilly Reference Breuilly2011 applies the notion of charismatic leadership to anticolonial leaders and to European Fascists (notably Hitler); he sees the latter as stepping into a void created by Weberian disenchantment, but is predominantly concerned with a juxtaposition of their charisma with ‘routinized’ and often impersonal power in the state’s social fabric (as per Weber’s notion that charisma is fundamentally außeralltäglich, non-commonplace, extra-ordinary). Breuilly sees a contradiction between Weber’s archaic (pre-modern, non-rational) charisma principle and the fact that it is re-enabled by the precondition of modernization; the intellectual lineage of the concept from Hegel by way of Carlyle and the vestiges of palingenetic Romantic thought in modern totalitarian leaders suggest a mode in which the two could be ideologically reconciled. In this book, I shift the locus of charisma away from modern political leaders towards the idealized nation itself, with charismatic leaders deriving their authority from being the nation’s champions.

19. On Hindenburg: Hoegen Reference Hoegen2007, Goltz Reference Goltz2009. Of the two German wartime leaders, Ludendorff is usually seen as the main continuity towards National Socialism, with which he actively sympathized; but Ludendorff never achieved Hindenburg’s charismatic status. On the cult of Hinderburg as charismatic in nature: Pyta Reference Pyta2007, 285–295. Once Hindenburg’s rule was ‘routinized’, disenchantment set in and his stature suffered.

20. On them: Mango Reference Mango1999, Deák Reference Deák1996, Sakmyster Reference Sakmyster1983, Papacomsa Reference Papacomsa2007 (and generally Fischer Reference Fischer2007), Garlicki Reference Garlicki1995, Vergez-Chaignon Reference Vergez-Chaignon2014, Screen Reference Screen1970–Reference Screen2000.

21. On them: Soubigou Reference Soubigou2002, Huntford Reference Huntford1997, Zamoyski Reference Zamoyski1982.

22. Readers may be reminded of the title of Stefan Breuer’s book Der charismatische Staat (Reference Breuer2014). That book deals with ancient states rather than modern nations and with archaic periods of early state foundation; his argument is that before institutional and dynastic authority were established, the nascent state had to rely on charismatic authority. Breuer is the foremost expert on Max Weber and his authority model, and I gratefully rely on him throughout this book; but I am not altogether convinced that his approach here is fundamentally different from Durkheim’s notion that in the religions of early polities, what was really revered was society’s own enduring permanence (Breuer Reference Breuer2014 chapter 1 note 2; Durkheim Reference Durkheim1912).

23. Leerssen Reference Leerssen1996, Reference Leerssen2016a, Reference Leerssen2020. The swerve from politics to culture in Irish nationalism after Parnell’s death may be less categorical than contemporaries, such as the nationalist poet Yeats, asserted (see Foster Reference Foster1997–Reference Foster2003); but the impact of Hyde’s lecture was nonetheless momentous.

24. Hyde Reference Hyde1892. Yes, the word ‘race’ is used – as a mere throwaway, a metaphorical synonym for ‘nation’, but twice over. As such it does reflect the ambient ethnicizing, racialist discourse of the 1890s; see also McMahon Reference McMahon2009.

25. Mann Reference Mann2012, Pross Reference Pross1967. On Mann’s own later assessment of German nationalism, see his open letter to Common Sense, 1940, responding to Viereck’s Metapolitics, and quoted in Viereck Reference Viereck2004, li–lxi (‘Thomas Mann on Metapolitics’).

26. See also Anderson Reference Anderson2006 and Reed Reference Reed2018.

1. This chapter, in some passages, summarizes the more extensive treatment of these developments that appears in Leerssen Reference Leerssen2018, Reference Leerssen, Segers and Van Hecke2023a and Reference Leerssen, Carmichael, D’Auria and Roshwald2023b. Analytically, Breuilly Reference Sheehan and Breuilly1992 stands out as a classic in the field; his focus is more on power relations and on nationalism as a political movement, arguing that ‘political analysis provides the key to a general understanding of nationalism’ (xii). Breuilly Reference Breuilly, Forrest and Wilson2009 summarizes the dialectics between Germany and Napoleonic France. To complement Breuilly’s state-political focus, the reader can fruitfully turn to Peter Watson’s admirable surveys of German and French socio-cultural and intellectual history, Watson Reference Watson2010 and Reference Watson2022. Specifically on Germany in these transition years: Langewiesche Reference Langewiesche2000, Sheehan Reference Sheehan and Breuilly1992, Hewitson Reference Hewitson2014. On empires challenged by nationalities after 1800: Berger & Miller Reference Berger and Miller2015, Connelly Reference Connelly2020, Storm Reference Storm2024.

2. The continuity principle holds that states maintain their identity as legal entities across territorial changes, regime changes and occupation, their rights and obligations devolving to their successor states. Marek Reference Marek1954 contends that an ‘ideal legal notion’ of statehood suffices to establish such continuity. Witness the German Reichsidee of the period 1806–1871; Louis-Philippe’s invocation of a transcendent ‘France’ subsuming both his royal rule and the imperial one of Napoleon; and the idea that the independence of the Baltic States proclaimed in 1989 was the resumption of a sovereignty suspended, but not abolished, in 1938.

3. Schiller, unpublished note (1797) quoted by Dann Reference Dann and François1995, 68.

4. On Metternich and the congress system: Schroeder Reference Schroeder1962, Ghervas Reference Ghervas, de Graaf, de Haan and Vick2019 and Wilson Reference Wilson2003. On Haxthausen: Schupp Reference Schupp2004; on the demagogue persecutions generally: Tyrichter Reference Tyrichter2019. Studies of the individuals concerned give information by way of context: e.g. Reetz Reference Reetz2002 (on Schleiermacher) and Richter Reference Richter1992 (on Hans Ferdinand Maßmann).

5. Frost 1867 gives a journalistic but useful conspectus of secret societies. For the Wartburg Feast: Brandt Reference Brandt1988. Decembrists: Raeff Reference Raeff1966, Rabow-Edling Reference Rabow-Edling2007 and Trigos Reference Trigos2009. Accounts of the Philomaths and Philarets are in Weeks Reference Weeks2015 and in biographies of Lelewel and Mickiewicz (Skurnowicz Reference Skurnowicz1981 and Koropeckyj Reference Koropeckyj2008); also, more generally, Eile Reference Eile2000 and Walicki Reference Walicki1982. The Filikia Eteria: Panagiōtopoulos Reference Panagiōtopoulos2003.

6. Rath Reference Rath1964, Santuccio Reference Santuccio2020. On Garibaldi: Riall Reference Riall2007. On Mazzini: Mack Smith Reference Mack Smith1994; on Mazzini’s international influence: Bayly & Biagini Reference Bayly and Biagini2009. For the French Charbonnerie: Spitzer Reference Spitzer1971, Lambert Reference Lambert1995. Young Germany: Estermann Reference Estermann1972. Young Turks: Gorgeon Reference Georgeon1995, Hanioğlu Reference Hanioğlu2001, Uzer Reference Uzer2016.

7. Lehming Reference Lehming2011, Vinke Reference Vinke1980: 112.

8. Philhellenism generally: Noe Reference Noe1984, Konstantinou & Wiedenmann Reference Konstantinou and Wiedenmann1989, Dimakis Reference Dimakis1992, St Clair Reference St Clair2008, Heß Agazzi & Décultot Reference Heß, Agazzi and Décultot2009. Franco-German: Maufroy Reference Maufroy2011. German: Quack-Eustathiades Reference Quack-Eustathiades1984, Meyer Reference Meyer2013. Italian: Pécout Reference Pécout2004. Dutch/Flemish: Wagner-Heidendal Reference Wagner-Heidendal1972. In painting: Athanassoglou-Kallmyer Reference Athanassoglou-Kallmyer1989, Constans, Lambraki-Plaka & Ribemont Reference Constans, Lambraki-Plaka and Ribemont1996. Byron: Raizis Reference Raizis1988.

9. 1830 Uprising: Church Reference Church1983; 1863 Uprising: Leslie Reference Leslie1969.

10. Burgdorf Reference Burgdorf2006, Dann Reference Dann and François1995, Langewiesche Reference Langewiesche1992 and Reference Langewiesche, Klinger, Hahn and Schmidt2008.

11. Ribhegge Reference Ribhegge1998, Engehausen Reference Engehausen2023, Engehausen & Kohnle Reference Engehausen and Kohnle1998, Vick Reference Vick2002, Fitzpatrick Reference Fitzpatrick2008.

12. Palacký’s letters of 1848 refusing to take a Frankfurt seat and convoking a Slavic Congress at Prague are online at e-rn.ie/palackyfrankfurt and e-rn.ie/palackyprague. On him: Zacek Reference Zacek1970. On the Slavic Congress: Orton Reference Orton1978. The documentation on that event has been collected in Žáček Reference Žáček1958.

13. Dowe Reference Dowe2000. Clark Reference Clark2023, though exemplary in its transnational scope, sees the revolutions as purely socially driven and downplays their nationalist ‘springtime of nations’ aspect; for which, see Jaworski Reference Jaworski and Langewiesche1998.

14. Albrecht-Carré Reference Albrecht-Carrié1968, Sédouy Reference Sédouy2009. Generally, Schroeder Reference Schroeder1972 and Wilson Reference Wilson2003.

15. On Scandinavism and its post-1864 decline: Glenthøj & Nordhagen Ottosen Reference Glenthøj and Nordhagen Ottosen2021, Gerven Reference Gerven2022. On Barrès and the coinage and emergence of nationalism in France: Bell Reference Bell2001, Girardet Reference Girardet1958, Weber Reference Weber1985, and quoting Francesca Zantedeschi’s ERNiE article ‘Nationalism and Politics: France’, e-rn.ie/frn-1.

16. More extensively covered in Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Lok, Pestel and Reboul2021a.

1. Original genius: Monk Reference Monk1960, 101–133, Simonsuuri Reference Simonsuuri2010. On Vico and this delayed impact, see Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Bod, Maat and Weststeijn2012a. Eighteenth-century reassessments of northern antiquity: Parker Reference Parker2015.

2. From amidst the great body of Ossian scholarship I highlight Stafford’s biography of Macpherson (Stafford Reference Stafford1988), the text edition by Gaskill Reference Gaskill1996, Reference Gaskill2004, Gaskill & Stafford Reference Gaskill and Stafford1998, Gaskill & Bär Reference Gaskill and Bär2012.

3. Iconography and engravings: Macdonald Reference Macdonald2013. The vignette on the British title page by Wale and Taylor was re-engraved by Antonio Baratti for Cesarotti’s Italian edition.

4. Gaskill Reference Gaskill1996, 197–198.

5. Monk Reference Monk1960.

6. Liminality: my contribution to Gaskill & Stafford Reference Gaskill and Stafford1998; Aeolian harp: as per M. H. Abrams’s classic essay (Reference Abrams1957).

7. Uhland Reference Uhland1807, Novalis Reference Schultz1797 nr. 37. For the related concept, in English, of ‘enthusiasm’: Mee Reference Mee2003. On the metaphysics of Romanticism, the classical survey remains Deugd Reference Deugd1966. Generally also Schanze Reference Schanze2018.

8. Hugo, ‘La fonction du poëte’, in his Les rayons et les ombres, online at wikisource, w.wiki/CdRN.

9. Lange Reference Lange1954, 260. See generally also Verschoor Reference Verschoor1928.

10. Quoted in Watson Reference Watson2022, 298.

11. Carl Reference Carl, Langewiesche and Schmidt2000, Planert Reference Planert2007; for the patriotic verse of the period, and its public impact: Ernst Weber Reference Weber1991.

12. Fetscher Reference Fetscher1988. Nazi propaganda, especially in the less successful phase of the war, frequently invoked the anti-Napolonic resistance.

13. Ferguson’s lament is online at e-rn.ie/lamentdavis; an interactive survey of 570 national monuments to post-1800 poets is online at e-rn.ie/poetmonuments.

14. See the title of the collection Hemans Reference Hemans1834: National Lyrics, and Songs for Music.

15. See Leerssen Reference Leerssen2023c.

16. Thorslev Reference Thorslev1962, Poole Reference Poole2010, Raizis Reference Raizis1988, Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Andreu-Muralles and Bolufer-Peruga2023d.

17. Scott Reference Scott1805, Rigney Reference Rigney2012.

18. Embodied communities: Rigney Reference Rigney2001; commemorations: Leerssen & Rigney Reference Leerssen and Rigney2014; Němcová and Borovský: Nekula Reference Nekula2012, Reinfeld Reference Reinfeld1982, Morava Reference Morava1985, generally, e-rn.ie/poetmonuments.

1. The classic discussion of antiquarianism as a forerunner of modern disciplines is Momigliano Reference Momigliano1950.

2. Antiquarianisms’s confused use of oriental sources: Droixhe Reference Droixhe1978, Vance Reference Vance1981, Leerssen Reference Leerssen1996; reliance on the imagination to construct images of the past: Rigney Reference Rigney2001 and Reference Rigney2012.

3. Bodmer Reference Bodmer1757, VI–VIII. Generally Parker Reference Parker2015; for the European impact: Gaskill Reference Gaskill2004.

4. See Henrikson Reference Henrikson, Burman and Sjönell2002, Hulle & Leerssen Reference Van Hulle and Leerssen2008, Schäfer-Hartmann Reference Schäfer-Hartmann2009. On the paradigmatic case of G. G. Gervinus: Ansel Reference Ansel1990.

5. On the role of Cesarotti’s Ossian in the European rediscovery of Vico and in preparing, through Herder’s reading of Ossian, the Homeric Question: Gillies Reference Gillies1933, Clark Reference Clark1947, Berlin Reference Berlin1976 as reviewed by Scouten Reference Scouten1978 (with a blustering but not altogether convincing rejoinder by Berlin) and Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Bod, Maat and Weststeijn2012a.

6. Aretin Reference Aretin1803, 3–4.

7. Joseph Görres, ‘Ankündigung der Bibliotheca Vaticana: Subskriptions-Anzeige (1812)’, in Görres Reference Görres1955, 109–110. The text is online at e-rn.ie/goerres.

8. In Schlegel Reference Schlegel and Eichner1988 4: 7–9.

9. ‘New philology’ carries a double meaning. On the one hand it stands as a counterpart to classical philology and refers to the linguistic-textual investigation of the vernacular ‘modern’ languages of Europe and their literatures. On the other hand (and it is used thus by Tom Shippey Reference Shippey2005, whom I follow) it refers to a new cohort of scholars working in a new paradigm in the humanities, dominated by such names as Jacob Grimm (see Bluhm Reference Bluhm1997). On the developing notion of the ‘philologist’: Hummel Reference Hummel2003 and Turner Reference Turner2014. Schlegel’s advocacy of a comparative historical linguistics in Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier (1808) was materially indebted to the work of Sir William Jones on Sanskrit (Aarsleff Reference Aarsleff1967). August Boeckh’s Enzyklopädie der Philologie defined philology as ‘the understanding of what is understood’ – unconsciously echoing Vico (see Rodi Reference Rodi, Flashar, Gründer and Horstmann1979, Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Bod, Maat and Weststeijn2012a).

10. On the transformation from familial and private networks into academic-professional ones, and the role of correspondence: Leerssen Reference Leerssen and Ehrhardt2019b. ERNiE was kindly assisted in incorporating the metadata of the Grimm correspondence by the Arbeitsstelle Grimm-Briefwechsel at Humboldt University, Berlin (grimmbriefwechsel.de).

11. Hroch Reference Hroch1968; see also Hroch Reference Hroch2015 (and the Introduction to this book).

12. Willems Reference Willems1834, my shortened trl.; full original at e-rn.ie/willems.

13. Gautier Reference Gautier1872, cc–cci, dated 8 December 1870. My trl. On Lenient and Paris: Ridoux Reference Ridoux2001, 116.

14. Quoted in Ridoux Reference Ridoux2001, 414. Online at e-rn.ie/ancienstextes.

15. Verhandlungen 1847 and 1848. Generally Fürbeth et al. Reference Fürbeth1999 and Netzer Reference Netzer2006.

16. Biographies: Gerstner Reference Gerstner1952, Denecke Reference Denecke1971, Peppard Reference Peppard1971, Martus Reference Martus2009. Grimm as philologist: Bluhm Reference Bluhm1997, Wyss Reference Wyss1979; international influence: Gunnell Reference Gunnell2022, Heilfurth, Denecke & Greverus Reference Heilfurth, Denecke and Greverus1963; politics: Storost Reference Storost1988, See Reference See and Fürbeth1999, Norberg Reference Norberg2022.

17. On these cultural transfers: Espagne & Werner Reference Espagne and Werner1990, Reference Espagne and Werner1994, Espagne & Dmitrieva Reference Espagne and Dmitrieva1996, Thiesse Reference Thiesse1999.

18. The paragraphs that follow summarize Leerssen Reference Leerssen2011a and Reference Leerssen2011b.

19. He wrote a piece of verse celebrating their conviviality: Pogačnik Reference Pogačnik1978, 31.

20. Hoffmann Reference Hoffmann von Fallersleben1838.

21. Ibid., xxviii–xxix; note the shift from Niederdeutsch to Plattdeutsch, the Low-German variant of German as spoken in Northern and Coastal Germany, as opposed to Oberdeutsch (the German variants spoken in the inland and Southern German lands).

22. For the early history of this entanglement: Von der Dunk Reference Dunk1966, Leerssen Reference Leerssen2011a. The later stages are exhaustively documented in the digital Encyclopedie van de Vlaamse Beweging, encyclopedievlaamsebeweging.be.

23. The notion of ‘portable monuments’ I take from Rigney Reference Rigney2012.

24. Generally on philological Beowulf appropriations: Shippey & Haarder Reference Shippey and Haarder1998. The quoted passage from Simrock Reference Simrock1859 is online in the original at e-rn.ie/simrock.

25. Anglo-Saxonism: MacDougall Reference MacDougall1982, Frantzen & Niles Reference Frantzen and Niles1997, Scragg & Weinberg Reference Scragg and Weinberg2000. Manifest destiny: Horsman Reference Horsman1981.

26. The following account of competing appropriations of the Reynard fable summarizes my Dutch-language study Leerssen Reference Leerssen2011a.

27. Lutz-Hensel Reference Lutz-Hensel1975, Timpanaro Reference Timpanaro1963, Bein Reference Kamzelak, Nutt-Kofoth and Plachta2011, Lange & Schubert Reference Lange and Schubert2023.

28. Grimm, ‘Über das Finnische Epos’ (1845), in Grimm Reference Grimm1864–1890, 5:112.

29. On Willems: Stynen Reference Stynen2012.

30. England: Macoff Reference Mancoff1995, Parker Reference Parker2014; English–German comparison: Oergel Reference Oergel1998. Specifically on Germany: Ehrismann Reference Ehrismann1975, Gentry et al. Reference Geary2002; also Saalfeld Reference Saalfeld1977.

31. Grimm Reference Grimm1864–1890: 5, 75.

1. On Vuk Karadžić: Wilson Reference Wilson1970; on his contacts with Grimm: Bojić Reference Bojić1977, Mojašević Reference Mojašević1990. On Kopitar: Bonazza Reference Bonazza1984, Reference Bonazza1995, Hafner Reference Hafner1957, Lukan Reference Lukan1995, Reference Lukan2000, Merchiers Reference Merchiers2007, Pogačnik Reference Pogačnik1978. The correspondence between Kopitar and Grimm has been edited by Vasmer (Reference Vasmer1938). Kopitar’s given name is variously rendered in its Slovenian or German forms as Jernej or Batholomäus.

2. On the Bökendorf and Wollzeiler Circles and their use of circular letters and questionnaires: Leerssen Reference Leerssen and Ehrhardt2019b. Documentation on the relations between Haxthausen and Laßberg and a persisting aristocratic orientation: Schupp Reference Schupp2004. The circular letters of Brentano (1806) and Grimm (Reference Grimm1814) are online at e-rn.ie/wunderhornletter and e-rn.ie/wollzeilerletter. The Wollzeiler questionnaire pointedly inquired about animal fable material – Reynard was already on Grimm’s mind, apparently.

3. On Fauriel: Ibrovac Reference Ibrovac1966, Espagne & Schöning Reference Espagne and Schöning2014. On Hardiman: Leerssen Reference Leerssen1996. Hardiman invoking Fauriel in his preface to his Irish Minstrelsy is online at e-rn.ie/hardimanfauriel.

4. On the hajduk figure: Neubauer et al. Reference Neubauer, Cornis-Pope and Neubauer2010 – more culturally comparatist than Hobsbawm’s class-fixated Bandits (Reference Hobsbawm1981). The quotation is from Dominian Reference Dominian1917, 321; see also Kedourie Reference Kedourie1960, 122–123. On Dominian: Joerg Reference Joerg1936.

5. Wolff Reference Wolff2001. In what follows, I also discuss materials covered in Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Baycroft and Hopkin2012b.

6. The ‘Homeric Question’ came to a head in Friedrich Wolf’s Prolegomena ad Homerum of 1795 and has sprawlingly dominated Homeric studies ever since. A good survey is Nesselrath Reference Nesselrath, Rengakos and Zimmermann2011. See also Chapter 4 of this book.

7. Sgoff Reference Sgoff1994 and Neubauer Reference Neubauer and Lindberg-Wada2006.

8. On Mérimée’s La guzla: Yovanovitch Reference Yovanovitch1911. On Hoffmann von Fallersleben: Leerssen Reference Leerssen2011a.

9. Wlhelm Grimm, in his 1831 Göttingen lectures on the Nibelungenlied, distinguishes between two types of medieval epic poetry: of Romance origin and of German. The former works were created by named, celebrated (nahmhaft) poets working in a courtly environment. The latter are authorially unspecific. ‘These appear to belong to the entire nation and merely to have been articulated by an individual.’ And while the courtly poems are often confused, the native ones (Nationalgedichte) have a solid, well-defined content and stand on a straightforward footing. Wilhelm Grimm Reference Grimm1985, 13.

10. On Rybnikov and bylyny: Sokolov & Sokolov Reference Sokolov1932; see Gruel-Apert Reference Gruel-Apert1998 (also on Afanas’ev). On Northern European reverberations: Gunnell Reference Gunnell2022.

11. Generally Sihvo Reference Sihvo2009, Fewster Reference Fewster2006; on Lönnrot and the Kalevala: Anttonen Reference Anttonen, Bak, Geary and Klaniczay2014. On the nationalizing function of folklore studies in Finland: Hautala Reference Hautala1969, Harvilahti Reference Harvilahti2018. Kalevala as a mythological text: Pentikäinen Reference Pentikäinen1999.

12. Grimm Reference Grimm1864, 113.

13. See the communication by H. J. Holmberg, graduate student (candidatus) in Helsingfors/Helsinki, in the Verhandlungen der gelehrten estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat (Tartu), 1 (1846): 25–37; Laugaste Reference Laugaste and Honko1990, Thiesse Reference Thiesse1999, Hasselblatt Reference Hasselblatt2016.

14. On Jane Schoolcraft: Noori Reference Noori2008, reviewing Schoolcraft’s writings as edited by Robert Dale Parker (2007). On historical and poetic Hiawatha figures: Thompson Reference Thompson1922. On the relationship between Hiawatha and the Kalevala: Nyland Reference Nyland1950.

15. Dvořák: Hamm Reference Hamm1983, Tibbets Reference Tibbets1993; Sibelius: Goss Reference Goss2009; Gallen-Kallela: Jackson & Wagemann Reference Jackson and Wageman2006.

16. Grimm and mythology: Kellner Reference Kellner1994, also Shippey Reference Shippey2005b. Grimm and legal antiquities: Schmidt-Wiegand Reference Schmidt-Wiegand and Denecke1987.

17. In what follows I draw on Leerssen Reference Leerssen2016b and Reference Leerssen2021c.

18. The Saussurean langue/parole model was applied to folktales by Bogatyrev & Jakobson (Reference Bogatyrev and Jakobson1929). Motif research in folklore studies led in 1910 to Antti Aarne’s Verzeichnis der Märchentypen which, translated by Stith Thompson in 1928 as Types of the Folktale, has become the great Aarne/Thompson Motif Index. For Grimm’s extrapolation from folktale motifs into mythology, see Kellner Reference Kellner1994.

19. On mythology and the reception of myths in modern Europe: Detienne Reference Detienne1981 and Feldman & Richardson Reference Feldman and Richardson1972.

20. On the Nordic starting-point for the new mythology: Roesdahl & Meulengracht Sørensen Reference Else and Meulengracht Sørensen1996, Wawn Reference Wawn and McTurk2005, Ross Reference Ross2018, Bønding, Kølle Martinsen & Stahl Reference Bønding, Kølle Martinsen and Stahl2021. On Grundtvig and his impact on Danish nation-building: Hall, Korsgaard & Pedersen Reference Hall, Korsgaard and Pedersen2015.

21. On the shape-shifting invocation of myth, see Williamson Reference Williamson2004 and Lincoln Reference Lincoln1999; the latter also addresses the muthos–logos duality.

22. Generally Carpenter Reference Carpenter1977. On Tolkien as a philologist in the Grimm tradition, the leading authority is Tom Shippey (Reference Shippey2005a and Reference Shippey2005b, in the latter work esp. his introductory chapter, pp. 1–28, ‘A Revolution Reconsidered: Mythography and Mythology in the Nineteenth Century’).

23. See Junginger Reference Junginger1999, Puscher & Vollnhals Reference Puschner and Vollnhals2012, Goodrick-Clark Reference Goodrick-Clarke2003 (exploring also the esoteric fringe) and Reference Goodrick-Clarke2019. Many scholars in Ancient Germanic philology were sympathetic to völkisch or Nazi politics, e.g. the Amsterdam professor and Nazi collaborator Jan de Vries; on him: Henkes Reference Henkes2005, 121–193. In France, Indo-European studies as an academic discipline were infiltrated by sympathizers of the alt-right GRECE movement during the 1980s, see Demoule Reference Demoule2017; for a wholesale critique of the Indo-European mythological paradigm, Arvidsson Reference Arvidsson2006. Ahnenerbe: Kater Reference Kater2006. Widukind: Lambert Reference Lambert, Lim, Walker and Lambert2014. Recycling of Ahnenerbe material: e.g. Gilst Reference Gilst2009, a hostile popularizing biography of Charlemagne. On neopaganism: Glünder Reference Glünder2008, Schnurbein Reference Schnurbein2016 and sources there. On paganism in the alt-right: Puschner & Großmann Reference Puschner and Großmann2009. Heavy metal music: Goodrick-Clarke Reference Goodrick-Clarke2003, 193–212, Gardell Reference Gardell2003, Lohmann & Wanders Reference Lohmann, Wanders, Dornbusch and Raabe2002. Runic symbols: Birkett Reference Birkett2021; a checklist of these symbols is at imagologica.eu/altrightsymbols.

24. On the influence of Arndt in this idea: Krügel Reference Krügel1914. The international influence of Savigny’s Volksgeist in legal theory: Ramathian Reference Ramathian2007. On Germanistik as a branch of historical jurisprudence: Dilcher & Kern Reference Dilcher and Kern1984. On the Hegelian line of conceptual development: Mährlein Reference Mährlein2000. Stocking Reference Stocking1996 registers the later sedimenation of the Volksgeist idea in ethnographical anthropology; see also Kalmar Reference Kalmar1987. On the rise of organicist historicism, Rothacker Reference Rothacker1923 remains a classic.

25. Vienna lectures, 1812 (Schlegel Reference Schlegel and Eichner1961, 14).

26. Humboldt Reference Humboldt and Böhler1973, 6, my trl. Generally on Romantic language theories: Auroux et al. Reference Auroux2000–Reference Auroux2001, Caussat, Adamski & Crépon Reference Caussat, Adamski and Crépon1996.

27. Humboldt’s 1836 treatise was the introduction to his three-volume investigation of the Javanese Kawi language (Humboldt Reference Humboldt and Leitzmann1907, and see Solleveld Reference Solleveld2020). A full scholarly edition of his linguistic writings is still in progress, see Mueller-Vollmer & Messling Reference Mueller-Vollmer and Messling2024. This and other linguistic writings are collected in Humboldt Reference Mommsen1973. Humboldt’s ergon/energeia dualism is elucidated in Mueller-Vollmer & Messling Reference Mueller-Vollmer and Messling2024; see also Lyandra-Geller Reference Lyandra-Geller and Allert2016. For the Sapir–Whorff hypothesis, see also Gipper Reference Gipper1972, Miller Reference Miller1968, Koerner Reference Koerner1992. More generally on Volksgeist and post-Herderian language philosophy: Bunzl Reference Bunzl and Stocking1996 and Forster Reference Forster2010.

28. Van Duyse, ‘Aen België’ (1834). Buffon’s dictum appeared in his Discours sur le style of 1753.

29. Volk as language community: Grimm in his presidential speech at the 1846 Germanisten congress (Verhandlungen 1847); see Habermas Reference Habermas and Fürbeth1999. Grimm on Belgium and the Frenchification of Flanders: Kleinere Schriften, 5:112, echoing points already made by Fichte in the Reden an die deutsche Nation. Generally also Leerssen Reference Leerssen2025.

30. Davis Reference Davis1845.

31. Viale Reference Viale1857, my trl.

32. In the original: ‘Das höchste Gut des Mannes ist sein Volk. / Das höchste Gut des Volkes ist sein Recht. / Des Volkes Seele lebt in seiner Sprache. / Dem Volk, dem Recht und seiner Sprache treu / Fand uns der Tag, wird jeder Tag uns finden.’ On the Alldeutscher Verband and on Dahn: Puschner Schmitz & Ulbricht Reference Puschner, Schmitz and Ulbricht1996.

33. Ireland: Leerssen Reference Leerssen2016a. Hungary: quoting Sándor Hites’s contribution to ERNiE on ‘Language Interest: Hungarian’, e-rn.ie/language-hun.

34. The Slovak national movement stressed its Slavic roots and connections in response to the Magyar centralization policies of the Kingdom of Hungary. See generally Brock Reference Brock1976.

1. Grimm Reference Grimm1864–1890, 4: 84–93. Online at e-rn.ie/grimmdanish. On Grimm and the Schlewig-Holstein question: Storost Reference Storost1988. On the linguistic nationalism of Grimm and Arndt: Leerssen Reference Leerssen2025.

2. The attempts of the Jacobin French Republic to centralize and direct the nationwide use of (exclusively) French are notorious: Balibar & Laporte Reference Balibar and Laporte1974, Certeau, Julia & Revel Reference Certeau, Julia and Revel2002, Schlieben-Lange Reference Schlieben-Lange1996. More generally on language and class/power/prestige relations: Bourdieu Reference Bourdieu1982.

3. ABC war: Juvan Reference Juvan2015.

4. Sijs Reference Sijs1999 gives a general survey of language purisms; see also Thomas Reference Thomas1992.

5. Quoted in Behland 1967, 341–342. Campe had already written a treatise on German language purification in 1794, ‘Über die Reinigung und Bereicherung der deutschen Sprache’, and had followed through with a Wörterbuch zur Erklärung und Verdeutschung der unserer Sprache aufgedrungenen fremden Ausdrücke (1801–1813). Quak Reference Quak1999.

6. Grimm Reference Grimm1848; Grimm notes the Frisians and the Catti (with whom Grimm, hailing from Hessia, personally identified) as non-migratory tribes, already noted by Tacitus in his Germania in the locations they still occupy today. On the Wörterbuch: Kirkness Reference Kirkness1980, Kochs Reference Kochs, Wiese and Henß1967.

7. Grimm Reference Grimm1864–1890, 6: 411–418, online at e-rn.ie/grimmdesiderio, together with the English translation by J. J. Schlicher (Reference Voss and Schlicher1935). In what follows I summarize Leerssen Reference Leerssen and Bloemendal2015b.

8. Grimm’s motion to pursue war against Denmark has been discreetly passed over by his admiring biographers, but it can be found in the minutes of the Nationalversammlung (Stenographischer Bericht 1:289–290), online at e-rn.ie/grimmdanish. It is preceded by a somewhat rambling speech invoking the scholarly work he had just published as the Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. The quotation given here is from Grimm Reference Grimm1848, 836–837; discussed in more detail in Leerssen Reference Leerssen2025.

9. Arndt’s writings are online at ERNiE, e-rn.ie/EMA (tab ‘Writings’).

10. See Storey Reference Storey2011.

11. The opposition between ‘splitters’ and ‘lumpers’ is widespread colloquially; for the application to linguistic taxonomy I am indebted to Alexander Maxwell.

12. Arndt Reference Arndt1834, 9. Given the contorted language, the original needs to be quoted: ‘das ganze Deutschland sollte in einem verjüngten verwandelten Zustande so hergestellt werden, daß sie wenigstens, wenn sie auch nicht sogleich mit voller Liebe hineingingen, doch sich billig nicht sträuben könnten, anzuerkennen, daß sie vernünftiger Weise solcher Einladung folgen müßten. Denn das müßte beiden allenfalls mit der Degenspitze gewiesen werden dürfen, daß die Schweizer hinfort nicht mehr als Söldner fremder Tyrannei zur Befehdung oder gar Unterjochung ihrer deutschen Landsleute sich verkaufen, noch daß die Holländer die deutsche Lebensader, den Rhein, zubinden und sperren dürfen.’ For the context: Leerssen Reference Leerssen2011a, 96–100.

13. On political Scandinavism: Glenthøj & Nordhagen Ottosen Reference Glenthøj and Nordhagen Ottosen2021; on cultural Scandinavism: Gerven Reference Gerven2022. Generally on Scandinavism as a form of macronationalism: Hemstad & Stadius Reference Hemstad and Stadius2023. On the ‘united kingdoms’ model as a template for state-driven pan-nationalism: Alvin Jackson Reference Jackson2023.

14. On the dialect-with-an-army meme: Maxwell Reference Maxwell2018.

15. The text is online at e-rn.ie/viennadeclaration. In what follows, I summarize Leerssen Reference Leerssen2024.

16. Newly introduced in the Montenegrin Latin alphabet were <ś> and <ź>, and in the Cyrillic alphabet corresponding new characters were composed by placing an acute accent over <с> and <з>. Bosnian linguistic particularism expresses itself stylistically rather than formally: Alexander Reference Alexander2006.

17. See also Flere Reference Flere2018.

18. For the coemerging and competing notions of a Bulgarian and a Macedonian ethnolinguistic identity, see Sampimon Reference Sampimon2006 and Marinov Reference Marinov2006.

19. Generally Kohn Reference Kohn1960 (Herkeľs quotation on p. 332); also (for South-Slavism) Lord Reference Lord and Jelavich1963, Milojković-Djurić Reference Milojković-Djurić1994.

20. Arendt Reference Arendt1976, chapter 8: ‘The Pan-movements’, note 1. The congress had not, pace Arendt, been called by the victorious Russians but by the defeated Bulgarians, trying to escape from their Axis opprobrium and isolated position, and currying favour with the Soviet Union; see Petrov Reference Petrov2016. Many primary sources on mid-century Pan-Slavism under Soviet hegemony are given by Kohn Reference Kohn1960.

21. On Dobrovský, Rask and Kopitar: Blom Reference Blom2013, Fryščák Reference Fryščák1982, Hjelmslev Reference Hjelmslev and Sebeok1966, Lukan Reference Lukan1995, Pogačnik Reference Pogačnik1978, Wirtz Reference Wirtz1999.

22. Greek and Irish Gaelic language debates: Mackridge Reference Mackridge2009, Crowley Reference Crowley2008.

23. See Pereira González Reference Pereira González2017. Leach Reference Leach2009 indicates how post-1945, Pan-Celtic associations and platforms were established in Ireland by Bretons who had taken refuge there following their Nazi collaboration during the occupation.

24. On Celticism following the Price/Le Gonidec axis: Leerssen Reference Leerssen2019a, Löffler Reference Löffler and Rieckhoff2006, Ellis Reference Ellis1993; on the eisteddfod: e-rn.ie/wls-10; on La Villemarqué and Wales: Constantine Reference Constantine2007; on German interest in the eisteddfod: Gruber Reference Gruber2014. On the British Foreign Bible Society: Howsam Reference Howsam1991.

25. Fraser Reference Fraser1966 and Reference Fraser1968, Gurden-Williams Reference Gurden-Williams2008, Price Reference Price and Williams1854. On Bunsen: Höcker Reference Höcker1951.

26. Lennon Reference Lennon, Flannery and Mitchell2007 and (more generally) Reference Lennon2008, Grant Reference Grant2001. On Renan and Arnold: Leerssen Reference Leerssen2006b.

27. On Müller: Bosch Reference Bosch2002, Davis & Nicholls Reference Davis and Nicholls2018, Nicholls Reference Nicholls2015; writings are anthologized in Stone Reference Stone2002.

28. On the growing racialism of comparative ethnographic philology in the nineteenth century: Snyder Reference Snyder1939, Poliakov Reference Poliakov1987, Hutton Reference Hutton1988, MacMahon Reference McMahon2016 and Reference McMahon2019, Harpham Reference Harpham2009. On Gobineau and Chamberlain: Fortier Reference Fortier1967, Biddiss Reference Biddiss1970 and Reference Biddiss1997; on Chamberlain: Field Reference Field1981.

29. As quoted by MacDougall Reference MacDougall1982, 121.

30. Müller Reference Müller1994, 2: 408, 410.

31. Müller Reference Müller1854, Reference Müller1855.

32. On Hungarian Turanism: Ablonczy Reference Ablonczy2022. On Vambéry: Alder & Dalby Reference Alder and Dalby1979. On Turkish Turanism: Landau Reference Landau1995, Meyer Reference Meyer2014.

33. Translation thanks to Ayşenur Korkmaz. For another rendering and for additional poetic productions from Turkish Turanism in the period 1900–1914, see Grigoriadis & Opçin-Kıdal Reference Grigoriadis and Opçin-Kıdal2020. On Ziya Gökalp: Heyd Reference Heyd1950, esp. p. 105 for the poem. On Akçura: Gorgeon Reference Georgeon1980. I am also indebted to personal information from Usman Ahmedani and to his Turkish-themed contributions to ERNiE.

34. Laruelle Reference Laruelle2007. Tengrism is an informing presence in the Turkish TV action series Deliler (2018).

35. Sisa Reference Sisa2016.

36. Enver Pasha and the Basmachi Rebellion: O’Kearney Reference O’Kearney2008, Zenkovsky Reference Zenkovsky1967. On the place of the Grey Wolves and their ideology in the Turkish political landscape: Poulton Reference Poulton1997. TV series: e.g. Diriliş: Ertuğrul (2014) and its sequel Kuruluş: Osman (2019); also the film Direnis Karatay (2019). Nomadic Games: w.wiki/CnCj. For the cultural re-emergence of Hungarian Turanism in a Eurasianist frame: Kremmler Reference Kremmler, Koranyi and Hanscam2023.

1. On the post-Ossianic and Romantic trope of being ‘the last of the race’, Stafford Reference Stafford1994.

2. Scott Reference Scott1805.

3. Rigney Reference Rigney2012. As Rigney has also pointed out, Scott, the master of historical evocation, was in no way a nostalgic: he embraced modernity and innovation wholeheartedly while celebrating the allure of the past.

4. On Romantic historicism: Rigney Reference Rigney2001 and Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Bod, Maat and Weststeijn2012a. Entries on historicism will be found in most handbooks of history, philosophy of history and history of ideas; see also Jäger & Rüsen Reference Jäger and Rüsen1992, or, more generally, Tollebeek, Ankersmit & Krul Reference Tollebeek, Ankersmit and Krul1996. For repercussions on literary history and literary history writing, see Wellek Reference Wellek1941, Laan Reference Laan1997 and Spiering Reference Spiering1999.

5. Scott Reference Scott1814, Chapter XXII, (‘Highland Minstrelsy’).

6. On romance: Scott Reference Scott1824. Waverley, addled by wayward reading, as a Romantic Quixote: Scott Reference Scott1814, Chapter IV (‘Education’) and the opening to Chapter V (‘Castle-Building’).

7. For a narratological analysis of history writing, and for Scott’s influence on the Romantic historians, see Rigney Reference Rigney1990. Also Berger, Eriksonas & Mycock Reference Berger, Eriksonas and Mycock2008.

8. On the professionalization of history writing: Boer Reference Boer1989, highlighting Guizot. More generally: Porciani & Tollebeek Reference Porciani and Tollebeek2012. On the historical profession in the century of nation-building: Berger & Conrad Reference Berger and Conrad2015, Berger, Donovan & Passmore Reference Berger, Donovan and Passmore1999, Berger & Lorenz Reference Berger and Lorenz2010. On the historicist reframing of national identity: Baar Reference Baár2010 (Central Europe), D’Auria Reference D’Auria2020 (France).

9. On the Bohemian manuscripts and their impact: Dobiaš Reference Dobiáš2014, Reference Dobiáš2019. On the ongoing ‘arms race’ between forgers and philologists: Grafton Reference Grafton2019.

10. On lieux de mémoire: Nora Reference Nora1997, especially Nora’s introduction, ‘Entre histoire et mémoire’. On the funeral at Vyšehrad: Nekula Reference Nekula2012. On Havliček: Morava Reference Morava1985, Reinfeld Reference Reinfeld1982.

11. Stafford Reference Stafford1994.

12. Libuše: Höhne Reference Höhne, Geyer and Stolarzewic2013; Wanda: Degen & Dzikowska Reference Degen, Dzikowska, Hahn and Traba2015; Amaya: Juaristi Reference Juaristi1987 and Yoeli-Rimmer 2018.

13. Rigney Reference Rigney2001.

14. On Conscience: Humbeeck, Absillis & Weiermars Reference Humbeeck, Absillis and Weiermars2016; on Sienkiewicz: Lednicki Reference Lednicki1960. Generally on the international influence of Scott: Pittock Reference Pittock2007. Historical novels in Estonia/Finland: Kaljundi, Laanes & Pikkanen Reference Kaljundi, Laanes and Pikkanen2015; in Belgium: Bemong Reference Bemong2007. On historicism generally: Furtado Reference Furtado2012, Mathijsen Reference Mathijsen2013.

15. On George IV’s Edinburgh visit: Scott Reference Scott1822, Prebble Reference Prebble2000. Kilt and Highland dress: the saturnine treatment by Hugh Trevor-Roper in The Invention of Tradition (Hobsbawm & Ranger Reference Hobsbawm and Ranger1983) overstates the case badly.

16. Conscience Reference Conscience1838, final sentence.

17. Aleš Žužek, ‘Janšev Beli panter razkriva skrivnost izvora Slovencev’, Siol.net, 19 December 2014, siol.net/novice/slovenija/jansev-beli-panter-razkriva-skrivnost-izvora-slovencev-281833. Lily Baier, ‘Panther Pandemonium Polarizes Slovenia Ahead of EU Presidency’, Politico, 17 May 2021, politico.eu/article/slovenia-panther-pandemonium-eu-presidency-janez-jansa/.

18. See Frech Reference Frech1996.

19. This drift to the less prestigious periphery of the literary marketplace is exhaustively documented for the Dutch case in Streng Reference Streng2020.

20. Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Lok, Pestel and Reboul2021a.

21. Henty and imperialist juvenile fictuion in Britain: Arnold Reference Arnold1980, Castle Reference Castle1996. Dutch case: Wagenaar Reference Wagenaar, van Lierop-Debrauwer, Mooren and Bekkering2004.

22. Handelingen der Staten-Generaal 2006–2007, 6 (session of 28 Sept 2006), 272–294. See w.wiki/CnCq.

23. In a lecture to the Berlin Academy of Sciences: Schoof Reference Schoof1961, 357.

24. Michelet Reference Michelet1847–1853, book 2, Chapter 4: on the night of 4 August 1789.

25. ‘Nos ancêtres les Gaulois’: Viallaneix & Ehrard Reference Viallaneix and Ehrard1982, Dietler Reference Dietler1994. Historians as nation-builders: Deletant, Hanak & Seton-Watson Reference Deletant, Hanak and Seton-Watson1988, Porciani & Tollebeek Reference Porciani and Tollebeek2012, Berger & Conrad Reference Berger and Conrad2015, Berger & Lorenz Reference Berger and Lorenz2010. On Michelet: Mitzman Reference Mitzman1990, Rigney Reference Rigney1990. On Herculano: Bernstein Reference Bernstein2013, Melo Reference Melo2013. On Palacký: Kořalka Reference Kořalka2007, Zacek Reference Zacek1970. Popular vs. academic history in Ireland: Leerssen Reference Leerssen1996. Dutch commemorations and religious rifts: Zeijden Reference Zeijde2002.

26. On Scott’s afterlives outside the fields of the novel and history writing: Rigney Reference Rigney2012.

27. On Arminius: Kösters Reference Kösters2009; on Barbarossa: Kaul Reference Kaul2007. Also: Dann Reference Dann1983 and Klein Reference Klein1980 on Cologne Cathedral. Generally on German historical myths: Wülfing, Bruns & Parr Reference Wülfing, Bruns and Parr1991, Münkler Reference Münkler2009. French myths are covered in the lieux de mémoire collection (Nora Reference Nora1997). On German historicist architecture and monuments: Storm-Rusche Reference Storm-Rusche and Althoetmar-Smarczyk1990, Werquet Reference Werquet2010. Vittorio Emmanuele monument: Atkinson & Cosgrove Reference Atkinson and Cosgrove1998. An English example: Vandrei Reference Vandrei2018 on Queen Boudicca. Flacke Reference Flacke1998 is a Europe-wide conspectus. On commemorative feasts in Germany and elsewhere: Hansen Reference Hansen1976, Leerssen & Rigney Reference Leerssen and Rigney2014, McCrone & McPherson Reference McCrone and Gayle McPherson2009, Quinault Reference Quinault1998.

28. e-rn.ie/jeanne and e-rn.ie/panoramas.

29. Quoted in Ian Cruse, Library Note for the House of Lords debate on 20 October 2011: ‘Teaching History in Schools’ (London: House of Lords, 2022), parliament.uk/globalassets/documents/lords-library/Library-Notes/2011/LLN-2011-030-TeachingHistorySchoolsFP2.pdf. Similar sentiments were voiced during the centre-right government coalition talks of 2017 in the Netherlands.

30. Tollebeek, Boone & Van Nieuwehuyse Reference Tollebeek, Boone and van Nieuwenhuyse2022.

31. Jan-Frederik Abbeloos, ‘Het subsidieverhaal van Vlaanderen’, De Standaard (7 January 2023).

32. Huizinga Reference Huizinga1929. On ‘proper’ and ‘improper’ history (the latter including ‘hyphenated’ history such as art history and literary history, heritage studies and memory studies): Rigney Reference Rigney, Morgan, Jenkins and Munslow2007. On cultural memory: Jan Assmann Reference Assmann1992, Aleida Assmann Reference Assmann1999. On the history–memory relationship: Cubitt Reference Cubitt2007.

1. On the sublime: Monk Reference Monk1960.

2. Harding Reference Harding1979, Wolf Reference Wolf2012, Schoonenboom Reference Schoonenboom2015.

3. Haskell Reference Haskell1993. The emergence of ‘ancient history’ as a historiographical field fissioning out of antiquarianism together with archaeology has been memorably discussed by Arnaldo Momigliano (Reference Momigliano1950).

4. Smiles Reference Smiles1994.

5. Delaroche: Ziff Reference Ziff1977; Gérôme: Ackerman Reference Ackerman1986, Christoper Allan Scott Reference Scott2010; generally: Bann & Paccoud Reference Bann and Paccoud2014, Sérié Reference Sérié2014, Picon Reference Picon2012.

6. On the Düsseldorf school and the Belgian influence: Jenderko-Sichelschmidt Reference Jenderko-Sichelschmidt1979; on Aman: Florea Reference Florea2010. This chapter relies on a corpus of 3,500 European history paintings made between 1780 and 1914, online at e-rn.ie/historypaintings.

7. Danish artists’ community in Rome: Rohde Reference Rohde1982. Nazarenes: Bachleitner Reference Bachleitner1976, Benjamin Reference Benjamin2002, Gossman Reference Gossman2003 (accessed 14 March 2024), Mitchell Reference Mitchell2001.

8. Düsseldorfer Malerschule 1979; Hütt Reference Hütt1995. On Cornelius: Büttner Reference Büttner1980.

9. A searchable checklist is online at e-rn.ie/murals. Maclise: Murray Reference Murray2008; Leys in Antwerp: Baetens Reference Baetens2012, Cleaver Reference Cleaver1955; Belgian murals generally: Ogonovszky Reference Ogonovszky1999; Rethel: Koetschau Reference Koetschau1929, Oellers Reference Oellers1987; Piloty: Baumstark & Büttner Reference Baumstark and Büttner2003. Murals: Monika Arndt Reference Arndt1976, Arnold Reference Arnold2006, Rommé Reference Rommé1996, Gräf & Tacke Reference Gräf and Tacke2004.

10. Prendergast Reference Prendergast1997.

11. Constans, Lambraki-Plaka & Ribemont Reference Constans, Lambraki-Plaka and Ribemont1996, Athanassoglou-Kallmyer Reference Athanassoglou-Kallmyer1989.

12. Schäfer Reference Schäfer1985.

13. For what follows: Monika Arndt Reference Arndt1976 and Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Loud and Staub2017b.

14. Gallen-Kallela: Jackson & Wageman Reference Jackson and Wageman2006; and see (for Estonia) Pütsep Reference Pütsep and Böckler1990.

15. See Grijzenhout Reference Grijzenhout and Jourdan1996.

16. A hundred years after its completion, the painting was made famous by Roy Strong in his pioneering vindication of Victorian art (Strong Reference Strong1978). See also Morris & Milner Reference Morris and Milner1992 and Sanders Reference Sanders2013.

17. See Bann Reference Bann2012.

18. Repin: Fan Parker & Parker Reference Parker and Jan Parker1980; Panoramas and waxworks: Hess Reference Hess2011, Melman Reference Melman, Melman, Berger and Lorenz2012, e-rn.ie/panoramas; Mucha’s Slavic Epic: Bydžovská & Srp Reference Bydžovská and Srp2011. On earlier history painting in the Czech lands: Huig Reference Huig2005, also Cooper Reference Cooper2010.

19. Salviati mosaics: Barr Reference Barr2008.

20. On Varma: Neumayer & Schelberger Reference Neumayer and Schelberger2003, Linden Reference Linden2024.

21. Dusza Reference Dusza2012; Zariņš: Ducmane Reference Ducmane2016, Pourchier-Plasseraud Reference Pourchier-Plasseraud2015. An inventory of national icons on banknotes and postage stamps is online at e-rn.ie/currency.

22. Bourdieu Reference Bourdieu1993, Billig Reference Billig1995, Lowenthal Reference Lowenthal2012.

23. Rigney Reference Rigney1990, Reference Rigney2001.

24. On spectacle versus narrative in Romantic history writing: Rigney Reference Rigney1990. On Nebeneinander vs. Nacheinander: Lessing Reference Lessing1766.

1. In Paris, Liszt tended to play Erard pianos. Gibbs Reference Gibbs, Gibbs and Gooley2006. Generally on Liszt: Walker Reference Walker1983–Reference Walker1996 and Reference Walker2005.

2. On Liszt as Romantic virtuoso: L. Kramer Reference Kramer2002, Leppert Reference Leppert, Parakilas and Bomberger2002, Quinn Reference Quinn2014. Specifically on Liszt’s combination of virtuoso showmanship and Romantic inspiration: Samson Reference Samson2007.

3. On Liszt’s Hungarian reconnection and the events related here: Legány Reference Legány1983 and Reference Legány1992, Hamburger Reference Hamburger1987, all following Schober Reference Schober1843. The Vörösmarty poem is at e-rn.ie/vorosmarty. Liszt responded to Vörösmarty’s Hungarian praise with his symphonic poem Hungaria (1854).

4. On the sabre symbolism and the úriember: Lajosi Reference Lajosi2022.

5. ‘Hungary is bleeding to death, but Franz the knight has escaped unscathed; so has his sabre, kept safely in the cupboard’ (‘Ungarn blutet sich zu Tode – Doch unversehrt blieb Ritter Franz, Sein Säbel auch – er liegt in der Kommode’; Heine, ‘Im Oktober 1849’).

6. Hamilton Reference Hamilton and Hamilton2005 and Walker Reference Walker1983–Reference Walker1996, 2: 58–73.

7. Liszt Reference Liszt1859, 18–49. The anti-Semitism is sometimes blamed on Liszt’s mistress Carolyne Sayn-Wittgenstein, but the first 1859 edition, which Liszt published under his own name, is as every bit as anti-Semitic as the posthumous, expanded one of 1881. The German translation (Leipizg 1861, by Peter Cornelius) shortened the anti-Semitic passages, but it is not Liszt’s original.

8. Salmen Reference Salmen1966.

9. As quoted in Salmen Reference Salmen1966, 95: ‘Ich habe eine allen Nationen gleich ansprechende Musik vor Augen, um den lächerlichen Unterschied der National-Musiken aufzuheben.’

10. What follows summarizes Leerssen Reference Leerssen2014 and is much indebted to Samson Reference Samson and Samson2002, Samson Reference Samson2007, White & Murphy Reference White and Murphy2001.

11. Vaughan Williams Reference Vaughan Williams1934, 17.

12. Beckerman Reference Beckerman2003, Hamm Reference Hamm1983, Tibbets Reference Tibbets1993.

13. Kregor Reference Kregor2015, 233 (generally chapter 8, ‘Programming the Nation’).

14. Lajosi Reference Lajosi2018, Frolova-Walker Reference Frolova-Walker2007, Helmers Reference Helmers2014.

15. On Wagner and the quest for a German national opera: Kooten Reference Kooten2019.

16. Verdi: Gossett Reference Gossett1990 and more generally Reference Gossett2012; Kimbell Reference Kimbell1981, Martin Reference Martin2005, Parker Reference Parker1997. Erkel and the unified-singing effect of the opera chorus: Lajosi Reference Lajosi2018.

17. The following relies on the case studies in Lajosi & Stynen Reference Lajosi and Stynen2015 and summarizes my introduction to that volume. For a full bibliography, see e-rn.ie/musicassociations.

18. Gumplowitz Reference Gumplowitz1987, Narváez Ferri Reference Narváez Ferri2005.

19. Blommen Reference Blommen1960 (zooming in on the Lower Rhine); Elben Reference Elben1887. The standard work in critical history is Klenke Reference Klenke1998; also Düding Reference Düding1984 and Minor Reference Minor2012.

20. Klenke Reference Klenke1998, 66. Original title: Germania: Ein Freiheitsliederkranz für deutsche Sänger aller Stände (ed. T. Täglichsbeck; Stuttgart 1848).

21. On festival culture in nineteenth-century Germany: Düding Reference Düding1984, Düding Friedemann & Münch Reference Düding, Friedemann and Münch1998 and (more sociologically) Hettling & Nolte Reference Hettling and Nolte1993. Specifically in Schleswig-Holstein: Unverhau Reference Unverhau2000. Festival culture in France: Ozouf Reference Ozouf1988, Corbin, Gérôme & Tartakowsky Reference Corbin, Gérôme and Tartakowsky1994.

22. On the massed-choir programme of the Nürnberg Festival, with its fervently anti-French militarism, see Klenke Reference Klenke1998, 110–115. The quotation is on p. 114. In the visual arts, too, the image of a Germania vigilantly guarding the Rhine was constantly reproduced: e.g. Lorenz Clasen’s painting Germania auf der Wacht am Rhein (1860) and Hermann Wislicenus’s of the same name (1873). e-rn.ie/germanias.

23. Klenke Reference Klenke1998, 170.

24. Stenographischer Bericht 1848–1850, 1, 27.

25. e-rn.ie/vowtothee.

26. Estonian choral festivals: Tall Reference Tall and Loit1985, Brüggemann & Kasekamp Reference Brüggemann and Kasekamp2014; embodied communities: Rigney Reference Rigney2011.

1. On the Zarzuela: Doppelbauer & Sartingen Reference Doppelbauer and Sartingen2010. Polka: Stavělová Reference Stavělová2015.

2. Gaelic Athletic Association: Cronin Duncan & Rouise Reference Cronin, Duncan and Rouse2009, Mandle Reference Mandle1987. Sokol: Blecking Reference Blecking1991, Blecking & Waic Reference Blecking and Waic2008, Nolte Reference Nolte2002, Balikić, Newman & Pojar Reference Balikić, Paul Newman and Pojar2023.

3. Turnvereine and Jahn: Illig Reference Illig1998 (on Bavaria, but giving wider context); Düding Reference Düding1984, Bartmuß, Kunze & Ulfkotte Reference Bartmuß, Kunze and Ulfkotte2008. Sokol: see note 2. Jewish sports clubs, Maccabiah Games: Brenner & Reuveni Reference Brenner and Reuveni2006, Friedler Reference Friedler1998, Wildmann Reference Wildmann2009. Nordau’s call for ‘muscular Jewry’ is online at e-rn.ie/muskeljudentum.

4. On the Schiller 1859 commemorations: Logge Reference Logge2014. On the power of literary commemorations generally: Leerssen & Rigney Reference Leerssen and Rigney2014 (chapter 2 on Schiller). Swiss Festspiele: e-rn.ie/sws-4.

5. On the eisteddfod: e-rn.ie/wls-10; on Price: Price Reference Price and Williams1854.

6. What follows summarizes Leerssen Reference Leerssen2015a.

7. On the Catalan Renaixença and the Barcelona Jocs Florals: Domingo Reference Domingo2011, Ginebra Reference Ginebra1988, Miracle Reference Miracle1960.

8. On the Félibrige: Berjoan Reference Berjoan2011, Martel Reference Martel1997 and Reference Martel2010. On the Occitan movement: Ripert Reference Ripert1917, Zantedeschi Reference Zantedeschi2013; on Catalan–Occitan crosscurrents: Ginebra Reference Ginebra, Badia, Margarit and Camprubí1989, Zantedeschi Reference Zantedeschi2019.

9. Benjamin Reference Benjamin2002. These pages summarize Leerssen Reference Leerssen2022b.

10. Nebeneinander/nacheinander: Lessing Reference Lessing1766. Hittorf: Kiene Reference Kiene2011.

11. Panthéon: Ozouf Reference Ozouf1997. The statues are online in the ERNiE collection of landmarks.

12. Milo Reference Milo1997, Bouvier Reference Bouvier2007.

13. Bourdieu Reference Bourdieu1980 chapter 3 defines habitus as ‘a system of stable and generalized attitudes, shaped by experience but capable of shaping experience in that they form a template for generating and organizing social action and representations’.

14. Tolstoy Reference Tolstoy1869 book 7 chapter 7. The scene is set in 1810–1811.

15. Lovejoy & Boas Reference Lovejoy and Boas1997.

16. On Mireille: Ellis Reference Ellis2012. On regionalism in French literature: Thiesse Reference Thiesse1991.

17. Höfig Reference Höfig1973, Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Dyserinck and Syndram1992.

18. Scott’s cavalcades: Rigney Reference Rigney2012. Hardy openings: see The Return of the Native, The Mayor of Casterbridge, Two on a Tower, Tess of the D’Urbervilles.

19. Champfleury 1857, 270. On Benjamin and spectacle platforms as part of the world fairs paradigm, Leerssen Reference Leerssen2022b. On the Salon des refusés: Boime Reference Boime1969, Dunlop Reference Dunlop1972.

20. Thiesse Reference Thiesse and Brolsma2022.

21. Dutch costume books: Koolhaas-Grosveld Reference Koolhaas-Grosfeld2010. On ‘panoramatic literature’ and the Spanish mode of costumbrismo: Krantz Reference Kranz2012, Kuijk Reference Kuijk2018, Peñas Ruiz Reference Peñas Ruiz, Alemany Ferrer and Chico Rico2012.

22. ‘Old German’ dress: Eva Maria Schneider Reference Schneider2002. Hungarian, Austrian: Maxwell Reference Maxwell2019, Houze Reference Houze2015. Generally: Maxwell Reference Maxwell2014.

23. For the Hofer iconography: e-rn.ie/AHo.

24. Höflein Reference Höflein1988 (concentrating on Baden). Dirndl fashion: Egger Reference Egger2008, Weissengruber Reference Weissengruber2004 (post-1945). Bavarian institutionalization under the Wittelsbachs: Wartelsteiner Reference Wartelsteiner2015.

25. Ständecke Reference Ständecke2007.

26. On Norway: Bjørnholt Reference Bjørnholt2005, Oxaal Reference Oxaal and Sørensen1998. On Garborg: Obrestad Reference Obrestad1992. Adlersparre’s ‘Friends of Handicraft’, still active, maintain a website at handarbetetsvanner.se.

27. Schubert Reference Schubert and Roth1992.

28. On Sauerwein: Masalski Reference Masalskis2003, Vistdal Reference Vistdal2000. On traditional Lithuanian dress: Šidiškienė’s article in e-rn.ie/lit-6.

29. What follows draws substantially on the studies collected in Leerssen & Storm Reference Storm2022, as well as the survey articles by Gimeno Martínez and by Storm in ERNiE: e-rn.ie/survey-12 and e-rn.ie/survey-13. Generally: Greenhalgh Reference Greenhalgh2010; for regional-to-international scalarity: Schwarz Reference Schwarz, Baycrift and Hopkin2012. See also Stoklund Reference Stoklund1994.

30. Storm Reference Storm2022. On the Swiss chalet: Cieraad Reference Cieraad2018.

31. Feige Reference Feige and Engler2012, Fernandez Reference Fernandez2022. ‘Hidden Persuaders’ as per the classic Packard Reference Packard1957.

32. Minea Reference Minea2022.

33. Ottoman costumes: Osman Hamdi Bey & Launay Reference Osman and de Launay1873; interesting light on Osman Hamdi Bey is thrown by Uslu Reference Uslu2015. On the Kronprinzenwerk: Fikfak & Johler Reference Fikfak and Johler2008. On Marubi: Elsie in ERNiE, e-rn.ie/alb-4.

34. Bergougniou, Clignet & David Reference Bergougniou, Clignet and David2001, Bancel et al. Reference Bancel2011.

35. Radiņš et al. Reference Radiņš2016, Hlavačka, Orliková & Štembera Reference Hlavačka, Orliková and Štembera2002.

36. On theatre history in the context of various national movements: Mäkinen, Wilmer & Worthen Reference Mäkinen, Wilmer and Worthen2001, Senelick Reference Senelick2008, Wilmer Reference Wilmer2004 and Reference Wilmer2008.

37. On Ibsen: Figueiredo Reference Figueiredo2019, Fulsås & Rem Reference Fulsås and Rem2021.

38. The conflict between these two poles has been brought into sharp focus by Philip O’Leary Reference O’Leary1994. On the Irish Literary Theatre: Leerssen Reference Leerssen1996. On Yeats: Foster Reference Foster1997–Reference Foster2003.

39. Generally Einarsson Reference Einarsson2006 (Iceland), Pikkanen Reference Pikkanen2010 and Reference Pikkanen2012; Mäkinen, Wilmer & Worthen Reference Mäkinen, Wilmer and Worthen2001 (Finland).

40. Leerssen Reference Leerssen and Seixas2021b.

41. Milligan: Morris Reference Morris2013; Gonne and the Daughters of Erin: Coxhead Reference Coxhead1985, Trotter Reference Trotter2001, esp. 73–100 (‘Women’s Work and the Irish Nationalist Actress: Inghinidhe na hEireann’). Shaw: Holroyd Reference Holroyd1989–Reference Holroyd1993, esp. vol. 2. Yeats and occultism: Foster Reference Foster1997–Reference Foster2003. Generally also Foster Reference Foster2014.

42. What follows draws on the relevant ERNiE articles on design and architecture, by Sidó (Hungarian, e-rn.ie/hun-11), Villaverde (Spanish-Catalan, e-rn.ie/spa-8), Grīnvalde (Latvian, e-rn.ie/lat-9). For Czech developments: Filipová Reference Filipová2019.

1. Du Barail Reference Du Barail1898, 149. Generally on belligerent public opinion in 1870: Stengers Reference Stengers1956.

2. See the republication Schneckenburger Reference Schneckenburger1870.

3. The accumulating repertoire is online at e-rn.ie/rhine and in the appendix to Beller & Leerssen Reference Beller and Leerssen2017 (‘Literary Appropriations of the Rhine’, 262–345). What follows is based in part on my contribution to that volume, Leerssen Reference Leerssen2017a.

4. Schivelbusch Reference Schivelbusch2004. From amidst the wealth of literature on nationalism, Barrès and the Action française I mention Weber Reference Weber1959 and Reference Weber1985 and Sternhell Reference Sternhell1972. On revanchism and the Ligue des Patriotes: Rutkoff Reference Rutkoff1981.

5. Quoted in Reinach Reference Reinach1920, 193.

6. Treitschke Reference Treitschke1870. The article appeared in the Preussische Jahrbücher, in brochure form, and in English translation (London: Macmillan; here quoted).

7. Hanna Reference Hanna1996 addresses the complex entanglements in French intellectual patriotism. Benda Reference Benda1927 is a classic denunciation of the failure among intellectuals to remain critically aloof from the discourse of nationalism.

8. Ringer Reference Ringer1990. Ringer focuses on the political economists of the 1890s and after, and as such his survey is less than representative of the ‘German Academic Community’ mentioned in the book’s subtitle. Political economists were heavily outnumbered by other disciplines in the apologetic writings that we see around the wars of 1870 and 1914.

9. Schivelbusch Reference Schivelbusch2004 summarizes this as the ‘Vae victoribus’ mode.

10. The two-nations view of French history: Poliakov Reference Poliakov1987; see also chapter 7. Fustel as a historian: Hartog Reference Hartog1988, Herrick Reference Herrick1954.

11. Fustel de Coulanges Reference Fustel de Coulanges1870 for the following extracts. See generally also Jurt Reference Jurt2013.

12. Grimm Reference Grimm1814. This contribution to Görres’s Rheinischer Merkur appeared anonymously; Grimm’s authorship was established by Friemel Reference Friemel1995.

13. On this duo of popular–patriotic novelists from the Lorraine region: Grandhomme Reference Grandhomme2021, Marotin Reference Marotin1999.

14. Well documented in Bisschoff Reference Bischoff2018.

15. Quoted in Lacouture Reference Lacouture1984–Reference Lacouture1986, 1: 66. Generally Beller & Leerssen Reference Beller and Leerssen2017, Leerssen Reference Leerssen2018.

16. French annexations and hegemonism in the Rhineland post-1918 provoked millennial commemorations of the region’s medieval ties with the empire; see Cepl-Kaufmann Reference Cepl-Kaufmann2009.

17. Loetscher & Scheibling Reference Loetscher and Scheibling2006.

18. Renan Reference Renan1878.

19. Bollenbeck Reference Bollenbeck, Götze and Vanoosthuyse2001. The opposition Geist/esprit was made by Wechssler 1927, see Schmidt Reference Schmidt and Dukić2012.

20. Kalmar Reference Kalmar1987, McMahon Reference McMahon2009 and Reference McMahon2016.

21. Ghervas Reference Ghervas, Boyer and Molden2014, Koskenniemi Reference Koskenniemi2001.

22. Rodolphe Reiss’s Report upon the Atrocities Committed by the Austro-Hungarian Army During the First Invasion of Serbia appeared only in 1917. On Belgium and war propaganda: Horne & Kramer Reference Horne and Kramer2001, Alan Kramer Reference Kramer2007, more generally Paddock Reference Paddock2014.

23. Online at wikisource: w.wiki/Cmsm.

24. Generally: Mommsen Reference Mommsen1996. Germany: Flasch Reference Flasch2000, Bruch Reference Bruch2006; France: Hanna Reference Hanna1996, Morton Reference Morton, Becker and Audouin-Rouzeau1990, Prochasson & Rasmussen Reference Prochasson and Rasmussen1996, also Gephart Reference Gephart1996 (on Durkheim), Krumeich Reference Krumeich1996 (on Lavisse). Britain: Andrew Reference Andrew and Dreisziger1981, Buitenhuis Reference Buitenhuis1987, Sanders & Taylor Reference Sanders and Taylor1982. On Lavisse as nationalist historian: Bourdon Reference Bourdon2017.

25. Wilhelm II, ‘To the German Nation’ (6 August 1914), online in the original at https://w.wiki/Cj$V. The final sentence echoed a line by Max Schenkendorf from 1813 that had become a widespread motto: ‘Never will the Reich be vanquished if ye are united and faithful’. That line also featured on a 1919 medal protesting the Treaty of Versailles and was used by the NSDAP as an election slogan in 1933.

26. The full text is online in the original at w.wiki/CgSD.

27. Hanna Reference Hanna1996, 80. The Erklärung is online at wikisource, w.wiki/CfjZ, and related materials at e-rn.ie/greatwar. See also Ungern-Sternberg & Ungern-Sternberg Reference Ungern-Sternberg and Ungern-Sternberg1996.

28. Durkheim & Denis Reference Durkheim and Denis1915.

29. On Crowe: Dunn Reference Dunn2013 and Rose Reference Rose2017, also the relevant portions in Clark Reference Clark2014. I argue the case in more detail in Leerssen Reference Leerssen, Edtstadler, Folie and Zocco2022a with particular reference to Rose Reference Rose2017 and Mommsen Reference Mommsen1973. Many discussions of the Fischer thesis concentrate on the representativity of his documentation and on the moral–political shortcomings of his life in the Third Reich. What is more relevant here is the fact that Fischer’s book, rather than perpetuating the Entente’s vilification of Germany at Versailles, broke through a German historiographical complacency rooted in the country’s self-vindications of the period 1914–1919. Also, its very title identified an important driving force in the run-up to 1914: Germany’s ambition to rise from the rank of a European power (which it had achieved in 1871) to that of a world power, hegemonic within Europe and with colonial possessions globally. On Weltpolitik, the ambition to become a world power, in the run-up to 1914: Mommsen Reference Mommsen, Bohnen, Jørgensen and Schmöe1981, Fröhlich Reference Fröhlich1994. Since the days of the Fischer controversy, a consensus has been reached that extra-European colonial imperialism is inextricably entangled with, and cannot be seen separately from, the jostling for primacy within Europe; see Anderson Reference Anderson2024.

30. See Clarke Reference Clarke1992, Firchow Reference Firchow1986, Jeismann Reference Jeismann1992, Kennedy Reference Kennedy1980, Melby Reference Melby2019, Scully Reference Scully2012. For the generalized culture of belligerence: Kieft Reference Kieft2015, MacMillan Reference MacMillan2014, and note 1 in this chapter.

31. See James Reference James1954, 424, Sladen Reference Sladen1938, Andrew Reference Andrew and Dreisziger1981. On Le Queux: Rose Reference Rose2017, 51–58. Also Kennedy Reference Kennedy1980, chapter 19 (‘The Impulse and Orchestration of Public Opinion’).

32. Goethe on ancient and modern tragedy: in his Shakespeare und kein Ende, 1815:

For anomie in Israeli counterterrorism, see Byman Reference Byman2011, woefully borne out by Israel’s genocidal response to the terrorist Hamas attacks of 7 October 2023.

33. See Hoeres Reference Hoeres2004.

34. Kennedy Reference Kennedy1980, Firchow Reference Firchow1986 (tracing the recoil from the ‘cousinship’ described in Mander Reference Mander1974), Stibbe Reference Stibbe2001. Generally on literary jingoism in Britain: Eby Reference Eby1987.

35. Online in German and English at e-rn.ie/lissauer.

36. Online at e-rn.ie/hardylissauer.

37. De Gaulle Reference De Gaulle1954, Volume I, opening.

38. Tilly Reference Tilly and Tilly1975 famously quips that ‘War made the states, and the states made war’. On Tilly as a theorist of nationalism: Brubaker Reference Brubaker2010. In charting the impact of modern warfare on nationalism I take my cue from the classic study in the field, Hutchinson Reference Hutchinson2017; his comments on Tilly: 13–18.

39. Generally Winter Reference Winter1998.

40. The Waterloo monument proposed in 1815 was a novelty in that it honoured rank-and-file troops as well as officers: see Castlereagh’s address to the House of Commons, 29 June 1815, Hansard’s parliamentary debates 31 (1815): 1049–1057. For the public veneration of fallen soldiers in France and Germany post-1871: Maas Reference Maas1995. Also Hutchinson Reference Hutchinson2017, 62–63.

41. Hindenburg Reference Hindenburg1920. Algeria: Valensi Reference Valensi, Leerssen and Rigney1999. Rambo: First Blood Part II, ending transcribed from the excerpt online at YouTube (in many versions and copies), remarkable also for the patriotic and hero-worshipping comments appended by the YouTube viewers. See Hutchinson Reference Hutchinson2017, 66–68.

42. Continued hostilities after November 1918: Gerwarth Reference Gerwarth2016; Culture of defeat: Schivelbusch Reference Schivelbusch2004.

1. On the importance of myth in independent Latvia: Ķencis Reference Ķencis2012.

2. Generally, Pourchier-Plasseraud Reference Pourchier-Plasseraud2015.

3. On historicist mass media in the twentieth century: Landsberg Reference Landsberg2015.

4. e-rn.ie/stampslist and, for a chronological network visualization of their meshing canonicities, e-rn.ie/stampscloud.

5. On the ‘Pageant of the Celt’: Carew Reference Carew2014. The design of the ‘Official Handbook’ (e-rn.ie/handbookirishfreestate) was by Art O’Murnaghan, who exemplified the overlap between the Irish revival movement and the decorative arts; see Figgis Reference Figgis1985.

6. Dziewanowski-Stefańczyk Reference Dziewanowski-Stefańczyk2022.

7. Sapega Reference Sapega and de Medeiros2007, Corkill & Pina Almeida Reference Corkill and Pina Almeida2009.

8. For the run-up to ethnocracy in independent Poland: Böhler Reference Böhler2018, Porter Reference Porter2002; on Smetona in neighbouring Lithuania: Eidintas Reference Eidintas2015.

9. The transition from nationalism to Fascism had been exhaustively studied in the French case by Zeev Sternhell, e.g. Sternhell Reference Sternhell1972, Reference Sternhell1978; the capacity of Fascist movements to ingest a source tradition of extreme nationalism is discussed for three countries (France, Italy and Germany) by Breuer Reference Breuer2005. Also Frantz, Geddes & Wrights Reference Frantz, Geddes and Wrights2018. Roger Griffin Reference Griffin1991 characterizes Fascism as ‘palingenetic ultranationalism’. In sum, John Breuilly’s contention that Fascism is a heightened form of nationalism is incontrovertible (Breuilly Reference Breuilly2011, Reference Breuilly, Baylis, Smith and Owens2020).

10. Mudde Reference Mudde2007, Reference Mudde2019.

11. South Africa: Duffy Reference Duffy2006, Marx Reference Marx1998, Moody Reference Moody1975. Israel: Kaplan Reference Kaplan2005, Tress Reference Tress1984; for cross-currents with Piłsudski’s Poland: Heller Reference Heller2017, for Jabotinsky, see also King Reference King2011, 167–176. India: Bhakle Reference Bakhle2024, Sharma Reference Sharma2011, Chaturvedi Reference Chaturvedi2022, Graham Reference Graham1990.

12. On Blut und Boden: Dupke Reference Dupke1994, Bramwell Reference Bramwell, François and Schulze2003, Schärli Reference Schärli2007. On Heimat movies: Höfig Reference Höfig1973, Moltke Reference Moltke2005.

13. Cavaliero Reference Cavaliero1977, Lowenthal Reference Lowenthal1991, Short Reference Short1992, Colls & Dodd Reference Colls and Dodd1986, Giles & Middleton Reference Giles and Middleton1995, Matless Reference Matless1998.

14. Baldwin, ‘What England Means to Me’, speech to the Royal Society of St George, 6 May 1924, online at e-rn.ie/baldwin.

15. Speech to the Conservative Group for Europe, 22 April 1993, online at johnmajorarchive.org.uk/1993/04/22/mr-majors-speech-to-conservative-group-for-europe-22-april-1993/.

16. The surveys are all based on the ‘Cinema and TV’ project in the Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe, interactively accessible at e-rn.ie/FilmTV. For the Indian material I am particularly grateful to Bob van der Linden.

17. Generally Riches Reference Riches2009.

18. For a thoughtful typological comparison between pre- and post-Communist forms of nationalism in Eastern/Central Europe, see Hroch Reference Hroch1996.

19. See also Linden Reference Linden2024.

20. See screenrant.com/rrr-movie-ending-explained-in-detail/. Also: Abrams Reference Abrams2022, Babu Reference Babu2022, Dore Reference Dore2021.

21. Following the cue of Linden Reference Linden2024.

22. In highlighting these characteristics of melodrama, I follow Brooks Reference Brooks1995.

23. Harris Reference Harris1983.

24. Jan Assmann Reference Assmann1992, Aleida Assmann Reference Assmann1999. The idea of ideas ‘on standby’, archivally encapsulated in books and media and potentially present and retrievable for reactivation even during periods of inert dormancy, was implied by Karl Popper’s notion of a ‘World-3’, an intermediate zone between the ontological worlds of material objects and mental notions (Popper Reference Popper1972).

1. Hearn Reference Hearn2006.

2. Freeden Reference Freeden1998, Stanley Reference Stanley2008; on populism generally: Mudde Reference Mudde2007, Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser Reference Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser2017. For a strenuous critique of applying the qualification ‘thin’ to populism: Schroeder Reference Schroeder2020.

3. Genette Reference Genette1969, 73.

4. Connor Reference Connor2004.

5. The motto is from Anne-Marie Thiesse, whose classic work (Reference Thiesse1999) broke significant new ground, and inspired as well as informed this book, in tracing the importance of ‘cultural transfers’.

6. See the comments in the Introduction of this book. It is generally accepted (and it was never intended otherwise by Hroch himself) that Phases A, B and C are not like carriages in a train, neatly separate periods characterizing discrete paradigms of a national movement. The cultural consciousness-raising that characterizes Phase A does not cease once social demands are being raised or mass movements are being mobilized, but remains an operative agent throughout. Later phases are overlays on earlier ones, not their replacements. That seemed to warrant a more sustained history of Phase A consciousness-raising, and much of this book is just that: tracing Phase A even as it interacted with the social and political shifts and revolutions of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

7. There may be different incubation periods in different areas before a cultural broadcast ‘takes root’ (e.g. the genre of the rhapsody or the historical novel, or the fashion for folktale-collecting). Why, Hroch (Reference Hroch2009, 44) asks, was the French message of ‘national’ popular sovereignty influential in Bohemia well before it took root in Catalunya, which was located much closer to France? To begin with, geographical distance does not count for much in the communicative diffusion of ideas. Moreover, the diffusion of culture does not take place wholesale from one ‘national’ space to another one, but moves piecemeal from hub to hub, between cities. Cities, with their bookshops, post offices, newspapers, sociability and institutions are the main relay points for the exchange of ideas. (There are also more decentred channels of diffusion: the ‘peer-to-peer’ networks of letter-writing artists and intellectuals, and the travels of individuals.) We may assume, then, that the emission and diffusion of culture and ideas takes places at a more or less even speed in all directions, like the sower sowing his seed, along a plurality of ramifying conduits in different directions. The asynchronicity of when the seeds take root would result either from contingent happenstance (some conduits may be more propitious than others in the conveyance of ideas) or from the fact that institutional or ‘social preconditions’ (I here gratefully avail myself of Hroch’s phraseology) are, indeed, less propitious for their successful adoption in one society than in another. This is less a historical ‘given’ than a historical problematics, and should be addressed in future research.

8. w.wiki/Ch4Q and w.wiki/Ch4T. The feedback of political activism into cultural consciousness-raising is the subject of Ann Rigney’s project ReAct, ‘Remembering Activism’; rememberingactivism.eu and see Rigney Reference Rigney2025.

9. On Valencia vis-à-vis the Spanish state and the Catalan movement: Archilés Reference Archilés and Martí2001, Martínez Roda Reference Martínez Roda2000, Villanueva Reference Villanueva2017.

10. For the span from ‘feeling’ to ideology: Hearn Reference Hearn2006. What I am addressing here concerns the pragmatics of how people experience cultural phenomena as they encounter them; I am not addressing the putative emotional motivations of national thought as conjecturally discussed by social psychologists.

11. As analysed by Arcan Gossler Reference Gossler2001, 74, discussing Stefan Breuer Reference Breuer1993, 187.

12. Breuilly Reference Breuilly2011 and note 11 in the Introduction of this book. I am mindful of the arguments of Hannah Arendt (Reference Arendt1976) and Giorgio Agamben (Reference Agamben2005) that it is in ‘states of emergency’ or ‘states of exception’ that democracy tends to founder, along with the rule of law and civil rights.

13. Chesterton Reference Chesterton1902.

14. Durkheim Reference Durkheim1992, Mestrovic Reference Mestrovic1989.

15. Durkheim himself linked anomie to market deregulation in his Leçons de sociologie (Durkheim Reference Durkheim1992); see also Burgi Reference Burgi2014.

16. On populism: Anselmi Reference Anselmi2018, Brubaker Reference Brubaker2020, Mudde Reference Mudde2007, Reference Mudde2009, Rovíra Kaltwasser et al. Reference Rovira Kaltwasser2017. For the systemic connection between populism and recent forms of authoritarianism: Applebaum Reference Applebaum2020, Reference Applebaum2024. For the alt-right nouvelle droite and identitarian movements, and their reliance on Fascist ideas: Griffin Reference Griffin2000.

17. Interview with Faisal Islam on Sky News, 3 June 2016, www.skygroup.sky/article/eu-in-or-out-faisal-islam-interview-with-michael-gove-30616-8pm.

18. Braak Reference Braak1937. For the sociological and politological discussion of contemporary European ethnopopulism in terms of ‘resentment’ and ‘grievance’ politics: Betz Reference Betz1990 and 1993, Ivarsflaten Reference Ivarsflaten2008, Heitmeyer Reference Heitmeyer2018.